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History of apologetics

The document outlines various aspects of Christian apologetics, including its definitions, methodologies, and historical developments from the New Testament through the Middle Ages to the 21st century. It discusses different apologetic approaches such as classical, evidential, cumulative case, presuppositional, and reformed epistemology, highlighting influential figures and criticisms associated with each. Additionally, it addresses the need for apologetics in response to challenges from atheism, Islam, and Judaism across different historical contexts.

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TRINITY COLLEGE OF THE BIBLE AND THEOLOGICAL SEMINARY
In This Class • The Nature of Apologetics: What is it and why is it necessary. • Apologetics in the 21st Century: understanding where we are so that we can understand how we got here. • Various apologetic methodologies • Apologetics in the New Testament • The Patristic Era • The Middle Ages • The 16th – 18th Centuries • The 19th Century • The 20th and 21st Century
What is Apologetics and Why is it Necessary? • Apologia - From the Greek word meaning "speaking in defense" or "In defense of." • Problems that result from terminology - apologizing, bias. • The difference between "knowing" and "showing." • What counts as Christian apologetics? - Any attempt to defend Christian theism.
The 21st Century Understanding where we are so that we can understand how we got here
Criticisms • Fideism - The position that belief should be maintained on the basis of "blind faith." (Response - C.S. Lewis - cliff diving explanation of faith - Lack of biblical support for fideism) • What about the Holy Spirit? (Response - Knowing vs. Showing) • Examples of Fideists - Kierkegaard, Pascal, Wittgenstein and William James have all been referred to as fideists.
Modern Methodologies • Classical • Evidential, • Cumulative Case, • Presuppositional and Reformed Epistemology
Purpose of Varying Methods • Doctrinal differences • Practical differences • Environmental differences • Differences of intent • Evangelistic differences
Classical Apologetics • Influential characters - William Lane Craig, R.C. Sproul, Norman Geisler, Stephen T. Davis and Richard Swinburne. • Explanation of approach - Classical apologetics is a two- step method which seeks to 1. demonstrate the existence of God (theism) and then attempts to 2. demonstrate the truth of the resurrection or divinity of Jesus (Christianity). • Criticisms - Man cannot rationally know God, the theistic proofs are unnecessary, the arguments are not persuasive.
Evidential Apologetics • Influential characters - Gary Habermas, John Warrick Montgomery, Clark Pinnock, Wolfhart Pannenburg, Josh McDowell, and Mike Licona. • Explanation of approach - Evidential apologetics is a one- step method which seeks to demonstrate the resurrection or divinity of Jesus. It may include supplementary material which helps demonstrate life after death. • Criticisms - Man cannot rationally know God, the resurrection cases fail if God's existence is not established, the arguments are not persuasive.
Cumulative Case Apologetics • Influential characters - Paul Feinburg, Basil Mitchell, C.S. Lewis, and Stephen Evans. • Explanation of approach - Cumulative case apologists seek to demonstrate the truth of Christian theism by using a variety of evidences which may or may not be arguments, strictly speaking. They are not typically defended tooth and nail. • Criticisms - Man cannot rationally know God, the "leaky buckets" challenge.
Presuppositional Apologetics • Influential characters - Cornelius Van Til, Gordon Clark, Greg Bahnsen, and Francis Schaffer. • Explanation of approach - One must accept the axioms that God exists and has spoken through Scripture in order to make sense of the world. Presuppositional apologists will often point out that when an unbeliever argues against Christian theism he is using christian theistic principles to make his case. Sometimes the apologist will compare presuppositions with the unbeliever. • Criticisms - Circular reasoning, and fideism.
Reformed Epistemology • Influential characters - Kelly James, Nicholas Wolterstorff, George Mavrodes, William Alston, and Alvin Plantinga. • Explanation of approach - These apologists will point out that the belief in Christian theism is "properly basic." Man has internal grounds for belief because God may have revealed himself via the Holy Spirit or "sensus divinitatis." • Criticisms - Fideism, the "Great Pumpkin" objection.
Apologetics in the New Testament Developing a Biblical Foundation for Christian Apologetics
Apologetics Implicit vs. Explicit • Implicit: “. . . it is sufficient to affirm at the outset that a careful study of the New Testament throws considerable indirect evidence on the way in which the infant church carried out her apologetical encounter with Judaism, with paganism, and with deviant tendencies that arose within the Christian community.” – (Avery Dulles, I) • Explicit: 2 Corinthians 15, 1 Peter 3:15, Acts 17, Romans 1:18-20.
Faced with Questions It seems clear from the way New Testament authors wrote that early Christians were faced with questions such as: • Where is the Messiah now? • If Jesus was the Messiah, why was he not accepted by the Jewish leaders? • Why was he “hanged on a tree?” • Why didn’t Jesus foresee the betrayal by Judas? • When did he even claim to be the Messiah?
Jesus and Evidence Certainly, Jesus defended his claims in the typical challenge and riposte of his day. This was like a miniature academic debate. The miracles served as evidence of the veracity of His message. Nevertheless, Dulles summarizes, “Jesus Rebukes those who demand extraordinary signs as a condition for faith in him and praises those who believe in simple reliance on His Word. Yet, He insists also that the signs He works are such as to increase the culpability of those who, having seen His works, still refuse to believe (Mt. 11:20-24; Jn. 15:24).” – (Dulles, 11)
Paul Romans 1:18-20: Facts about God (including certain attributes) can be known from observing the natural world. Acts 17:16-34: Reasons that the one true God (“The Unknown God”) is the creator of all things. Claims that God furnished “proof” of the resurrection. 1 Corinthians 1:18-25: The world’s wisdom and philosophy is insufficient. 1 Corinthians 15: The proof of the resurrection by early church creed, and eyewitness testimony.
Peter: 1 Peter 3:15 1) Peter mandates that Christians be ready to defend their faith. 2) Peter implies that it is likely that believers will have an opportunity to defend their faith. 3) Peter defines the proper attitude of the believer when approaching the apologetic event.
The Gospels Matthew: Because this was written in a context in which Jews were still geographically close, it contains explicit apologetic material relating to the messianic prophecies. Mark: Simply presents Jesus as the early church knew Him. Luke: Political and theological apology. It is also a history of the blossoming church. John: Written to build up the belief of converts (possibly to serve some evangelistic purpose).
Hebrews Hebrews serves as an apologetic work aimed at the truth of Christianity in light of the ongoing temptation to resort to Judaism. There are three clear concerns the author deals with: 1) How could the religion of Israel be overshadowed by Christianity? 2) Why was Jesus so persecuted if he was the messiah? 3) How could there be no sacrificial system?
The Patristic Era Carving Out a Place for Christianity
Reasons to Defend Dulles gives four types of people that necessitated a defense after the first quarter of the 2nd century. Converts: Well educated converts wanted intelligent answers to tough questions Philosophers: Rigorous argumentation was presented from trained philosophers Emperors: Political apologetics needed to be given for tolerance of the Christian religion Jews: Jews were still challenging the “new” faith.
1st-2nd Cent.: Aristides of Athens (Died 134 ad) Wrote: Apology. All peoples are categorized as either barbarians, Greeks, Egyptians, Jews, or Christians. Places more emphasis on the morality of Christians than on miracle claims.
2nd Cent.: Justin Martyr (100-165 ad) Works: First and Second Apology written to gain tolerance for Christians First Apology was written to emperors Antoninus Pius & Lucius Commodus. Argues that even if Christians are wrong they aren’t dangerous and shouldn’t get the death penalty. Second Apology is a case that there is value in philosophy no matter where it comes from and those who come to truth via philosophy are Christian without realizing it. Dialogue With Trypho the Jew is a response to the Jews, and contains Justin’s testimony of embracing Christianity after reviewing the messianic prophecies.
2nd Cent.: Athenagoras (133-190 ad) Works: Embassy for the Christians which is an explanation of why Christianity should be tolerated by the culture. Christians are not atheists or immoral. On the Resurrection of the Dead An early defense of the doctrine of the resurrection.
2nd Cent.: Theophilus (Died around 184 ad) Syrian Bishop of Antioch, who wrote primarily to urge his close friend Autolycus to embrace Christianity. Greatly impressed with Moses. Said the Genesis account was the only reliable guide to human origin. Taught a “theology of the heart.” If you’re heart is open to God, you’ll find Him. If it isn’t . . . You won’t.
Letter to Diognetus • “the Pearl of early Christian apologetics. . .” • Uncertain authorship and date. • Probably during 120-210 ad. • Addresses three questions: 1) How can Christianity reject other gods and traditions? 2) What is the secret of Christian brotherly love? 3) Why didn’t Christianity appear earlier? • Concepts: Christians are at home and are strangers wherever they go. “Christians are to the world what the soul is to the body.”
Examining the 2nd century apologists • Defensive and Aggressive – “The work of the second-century apologists, reflects the vigor and the inconsistencies of youth.” – Dulles Pg. 36. • Strong cases for religious tolerance. • Show the weaknesses of pagan worship and demonstrate how the proper view of God leads to morality and love. • Underdeveloped ideas – More of an attempt to compare religions than develop proofs of Christianity.
3rd Cent: Origen (Died around 254 ad) Raised in an environment of persecution. Revitalized Clement’s Catechetical school in Alexandria. Responded to Celsus with Against Celsus
2nd- 3rd Cent.: Tertullian (160-280 ad) His work, Apology, is an application of Roman juridical principles to Christian apologetics. Inconsistencies in treating Christians as criminals is discussed. Responds to the standard claims of atheism, sexual promiscuity and cannibalism. Points out that pagans unintentionally invoke the one true God – “God Almighty.” Does not affirm the knowledge of God by general revelation. God must send prophets.
3rd – 4th Cent.: Eusebius (263-339 ad) His two-part work, The Preparation of the Gospel, and The Proof of the Gospels is a massive collection. Theophany – Is a much shorter work that contains the most important arguments from the former two. Originality? His greatest contribution is not in producing new concepts, but in compiling the best of the Greek fathers. Wrote much against pagan polytheism
4th - 5th Cent.: John Chrysostom (349-407 ad) Works:, Demonstration to the Jews and Greeks that Christ is God, was incomplete and brief. Jesus accomplished the impossible by changing the world through preaching to local ignorant people. Jesus fulfilled the messianic prophecies
4th – 5th Cent.: Augustine (354-430 ad) Works: An Answer to Skeptics, Divine Providence and the Problem of Evil, On the Catholic and Manichaean Ways of Life, Of True Religion, On the Usefulness of Belief, On Freewill, Reply to the Letter of Manichaeus Called Fundamental, Confessions, and City of God.
The Middle Ages Developing arguments for the Truth of the Christian Message
Reasons to Defend Islam: In the east, Islam was becoming a serious religious and military force. The apologists of this era needed to respond. Judaism: In the west, Jews were still criticizing Christianity. Apologists needed to continue their evangelistic endeavors with them. Rational basis for faith: Scholars of this era saw fit to develop there own introspective reasons for faith.
7th – 8th Cent.: John Damascene (676-749 ad) Works: The Source of Knowledge, On Heresies and Dialogue between a Saracen and a Christian. Argued that man can rationally know God. Responded to Jews regarding the keeping of the law and the sabbath. Explained that Islam is an Arian heresy since it denies the divinity of Jesus.
11th – 12th Cent.: Anselm (1033-1109 ad) Works: Monologion (An Example of Meditation on the Logic of Faith) – contains a response to the Euthyphro Dilemma. Faith necessarily precedes reason, but reason can expand upon faith. Proslogion (Fath Seeking Understanding - Contains his famous ontological argument for God’s existence.
11th – 12th Cent.: Peter Abelard (1079-1142 ad) Works: Dialogue Between a Philosopher, a Jew and a Christian; Christian Theology. Christianity is capable of satisfying the intellectual. Christianity retains moral superiority. Christianity is at home in philosophy.
13th Cent.: Thomas Aquinas (1225-1274 ad) Works: Summa Contra Gentiles; Summa Theologica. In Summa Contra Gentiles – Aquinas provides a defense of the Christian faith in general (though it was commissioned as a missionary education manual for dealing with Muslims. Summa Theologica – Contains Aquinas’ “Five Ways” to demonstrate God’s existence.
The 16th-18th Centuries The Truth of the Word and How to Know Christianity is True
Reasons to Defend The period of the reformation was a time of far less emphasis on what we would think of as apologetics (the demonstration of the truth of the Christian faith), but was still very much a time of apologetics proper (the defense of the Christian faith). If the faith was being marred from within, by poor doctrine and abusive leadership, the true teaching needed to be defended. Internal purification of the Church: The debate regarding indulgences, the Mass, Saints, purgatory, the sufficiency of Scripture, and the Pope. From Renee Descartes on Christian philosophers grappled with apologetics in light of theories of knowledge. Deism and Atheism: External emphasis.
15th – 16th Cent.: Martin Luther (1483-1546 ad) Thought of reason outside of faith as helpful for this earthly environment, but when an unbeliever applies reason to faith reason becomes, “the devil’s whore.” Yet, once one submits to revelation, reason can expand upon theology. Philipp Melanchthon – was one of Luther’s disciples, who initially accepted the above idea, but later embraced apologetics as valuable in dealing with the unregenerate.
16th Cent.: John Calvin (1509-1564 ad) Reason can assist man in knowing certain things about God, but without God’s electing power, man will fall into idolatry. He does argue for the truth of Scripture, but these facts only serve (in his thinking) to confirm to a man what the Holy Spirit has already demonstrated.
17th Cent.: Rene Descartes (1596-1650 ad) Attempted to argue from the most basic knowledge one can have “I think therefore I am,” to the reality of the external world and then to God. This stands opposite the medieval apologists who believed in starting from the axiom that the external world DOES exist, and then arguing for God’s existence from there.
17th Cent.: Hugo Grotius (1583-1645 ad) Works: The Truth of the Christian Religion, is a popular work of apologetics which contains responses to Islam and Judaism, as well as endorses the use of arguments for God’s existence. Credited with having written the first popular level apologetics book in history.
17th Cent.: Blaise Pascal (1623-1662 ad) Works: The Pensees, which is incomplete. It is most famous for the “Wager” argument. Though incomplete, the work contains many evidential thoughts. Nevertheless, Pascal was most focused on the personal and relational aspects of Christianity.
17th-18th Cent.: John Locke (1632-1704 ad) Works: The Reasonableness of Christianity as Delivered in the Scriptures. Focuses on arguments against deism which had become very popular in his day. Also gives arguments for the existence of God, based on causality. Believed in the verbal inspiration of Scripture.
17th-18th Cent.: Samuel Clarke (1675-1729 ad) Works: The Unchangeable Obligations of Natural Religion and the Truth and Certainty of the Christian Religion. Responded to skeptics of his time asserting that through natural theology one can know that there is a God and much about His nature. Argued that a deist who honestly considers the Christian faith will embrace it. If he rejects it he will inevitably become and atheist.
18th Cent.: Joseph Butler (1692-1752 ad) Works: The Analogy of Religion, Natural and Revealed, to the Constitution and Course of Nature. Assumes God’s existence since he’s arguing primarily with deists. Butler argues that from our experiences and knowledge of morality we should be able to recognize by analogy that this life is a probationary period before a new world. Thus, moral improvement is the goal of life. He does further argue from natural religion.
18th Cent.: Thomas Reid (1710-1796 ad) Works: Inquiry into the Human Mind. He came to be known as a Scottish Common Sense Realist. He felt that analytic philosophy (ala Descartes) had gone so far into the obscure as to be useless. This view, he thought, would place Christian apologetics back where it should be.
18th- 19th Cent.: William Paley (1743-1805 ad) Works: A View of the Evidences of Christianity and Natural Theology. Paley responds to Hume on miracles. Lays out the best evidence of his predecessors. In Natural Theology he gives a great defense of the argument from design.
The 19th Century An Alternative to Typical Apologetics
Reasons to Defend Because of developments during the 18th century, the 19th century apologists had the tools and resources for a variety of approaches. What began among the most prominent names, however, was a move away from the medieval theistic proofs and toward an understanding that unbelievers will not be convinced by evidence. This would ultimately lead to be influential in fideistic views on the one hand and the development of presuppositional apologetics on the other.
18th-19th Cent.: Immanuel Kant (1724-1804 ad) Works: Critique of Pure Reason, and Religion within the limits of reason alone. Attempted to synthesize empiricism and rationalism. Argued for embracing God’s existence because of subjective and individual moral experience. Rejected attempts argue for God from reason. Specifically rejected the Teleological, Cosmological, and Ontological arguments.
19th Cent.: Soren Kierkegaard (1813-1855 ad) Works: Philosophical Fragments Like Kant, rejects any attempt at rational attempts to demonstrate the existence of God. Like Gutthold Lessing, rejects any attempt to demonstrate the truth of Christianity by means of historical evidence. Kierkegaard is, therefore, a true fideist. One must simply believe in Christianity.
19th Cent.: Alexander B. Bruce (1831-1899 ad) Wrote: Apologetics; or Christianity Defensively Stated. According to Avery Dulles, Bruce is the true progenitor of presuppositional apologetics. His view is that the arguments will be completely unsuccessful in convincing the unregenerate man.
The 20th – 21st Century The First Century All Over Again
Reasons to Defend The 20th and 21st centuries have seen a flourishing of apologetic methods, and opponents. Classical apologetics has been bolstered, presuppositional apologetics has been further developed by men like Van Til. Evidential apologetics has continued. Cummulative case apologetics has become a popular approach and Reformed Epistemology has been created (or at least formalized).
19th- 20th Cent.: Abraham Kuyper (1837-1920 ad) Works: Principles of Sacred Theology Believed that there was no common ground between believers and unbelievers. "Oh, no single piece of our mental world is to be hermetically sealed off from the rest, and there is not a square inch in the whole domain of our human existence over which Christ, who is Sovereign over all, does not cry: 'Mine!'"
19th- 20th Cent.: B. B. Warfield (1851-1921 ad) Works: no specifically apologetics books, but had a strong apologetic emphasis in most of his work. Departed from some of his reformed contemporaries in their views of presuppositionalism over Classical apologetics. Argued for a two step method.
20th Cent.: C.S. Lewis (1898-1963 ad) Works: Mere Christianity; Surprised by Joy and a number of others. Lewis popularized apologetics via his nonfiction and fiction works. He popularized the moral argument and offered the Trilemma argument in favor of Jesus’ divinity.
20th Cent.: Cornelius Van Til (1895-1987 ad) Works: The Defense of the Faith. Popularized Presuppositional apologetics. Skeptics rely on Christian principles in order to argue against Christian beliefs. This has spawned the rise of transcendental arguments.
20th - 21st Cent.: Alvin Plantinga (1932-) Works: God and Other Minds; Warranted Christian Belief; God, Freedom and Evil Best known for his contributions to Reformed Epistemology, theistic arguments, and the problem of evil.
20th- 21st Cent.: Norman Geisler (1932-) Works: Far too many to name, but certainly his Christian Apologetics, and I Don’t Have Enough Faith to be an Atheist. Done great work on Christian ethics. Helped to bring about the current rise in popularity for apologetics. Has served as a watchdog for heresy among scholars and apologists.
20th- 21st Cent.: John Warwick Montgomery (1931-) Works: Faith Founded on Fact (and many others). Former Vice President of Academic Affairs for Trinity College of the Bible and Theological Seminary. Well respected evidential apologist.
20th- 21st Cent.: William Lane Craig (1949-) Works: Reasonable Faith, On Guard, Philosophical Foundations for a Christian Worldview. Christianity’s most accomplished debating apologist. Best known for his work on the Kalam cosmological argument.
20th- 21st Cent.: Gary Habermas (1950-) Works: The Case for the Resurrection of Jesus, Resurrected?, Gary Habermas and Anthony Flew: Did Jesus Rise from the Dead? Most prominent American apologist on the resurrection for many years. Was likely very influential in Anthony Flew’s rejection of
20th- 21st Cent.: Mike Licona (1961-) Works: Paul vs. Muhammad, The Case for the Resurrection of Jesus, The Resurrection: A New Historiographical Approach. Likely, now the leading American apologist on the resurrection. Currently interested in alleged New Testament contradictions.
20th- 21st Cent.: N.T. Wright (1948-) Works: Many works, including, The Resurrection of the Son of God. Likely the most influential Apologist on the resurrection outside of the United States. Argues for seven changes in Jewish practice and belief on the part of early Jewish Christians.
20th- 21st Cent.: Josh McDowell (1939-) Works: Evidence that Demands a Verdict. Helped popularize apologetics toward the end of the 20th century and in the beginning of the 21st. Combined apologetic material with proclamation evangelism.
The Core facts Method A Strategy for Understandable and Teachable Christian Defense
Evangelistic Apologetics Compatibility & Integration