Dedan Kimathi University of

Technology
DEPARTMENT OF CIVIL
ENGINEERING & GEOLOGY

BSc and Bed Civil Engineering

& BSc Geology

Lecturer: Rose Tanui

Email address:

[Link]@[Link]
 Course Assessment
- Assignments 5%
- Continuous Assessment Tests 15%
- Laboratory Experiments 10%
- Final Examination 70%
- Total 100%

- Pass mark 40%

 Why
Chemistry?
 Introduction: Why Chemistry?
• Do you really have to ask this question?
• The answer to this question is so obvious. Just look around you.
• All of the objects around you— book, pen or pencil, and the things of nature such
as rocks, water, and plant and animal substances constitute the matter of the
universe. Each of the particular kinds of matter, is referred to as a material. We
can define chemistry as the science of the composition and structure of materials
and of the changes that materials undergo.
• Think and understand what chemistry is. Just understanding what chemistry is
should answer your question on why it is important.
-Mathew Olmedo, Bioprocess
Engineer
 Why Chemistry?
• Everything that has been created by engineers is composed of chemicals.
Chemistry is the study of chemicals.
• Things fail when chemicals interact in undesirable ways. Bridges fall down.
Machines grind to a halt. Refineries explode. Nuclear plants leak radiation.
Plastics degrade and crumble.
• Civil engineers do some chemistry as part of their responsibility for water
systems including purification of water and treatment of sewage.
• Civil engineers also have some appreciation of chemistry through their love
of concrete, which is based on a chemical reaction. This can be controlled to
be fast or slow. On really large projects the heat produced by the reaction
needs to be taken into account.
• Mechanical & mechatronic engineers do sums about combustion, which is a
major chemical reaction and the source of a lot of energy (and pollution).
• Geologists determine precisely the concentrations of many trace elements
and their isotopes in rocks
 Why Chemistry?
• Because chemistry deals with all materials, it is a subject of enormous breadth. It
would be difficult to exaggerate the influence of chemistry on modern science
and technology or on our ideas about our planet and the universe.
 Significance of the course for engineers
• Chemistry is a foundational science that holds paramount importance for
engineers across various
o It informs material selection
o Underpins chemical processes crucial for various industries
o Enables environmental sustainability through pollution control and waste
management
o Aids in preventing material degradation like corrosion
o Ensures safety through hazard assessment
o Support quality control in manufacturing
o Plays a vital in energy production and innovation
o Fosters interdisciplinary collaboration
o Empowers engineers to make informed decisions and designs
• In essence, a firm grasp of chemistry equips engineers to design efficient, safe,
and sustainable solutions across a wide array of industries and applications
 What is Chemistry?
• Chemistry is the scientific discipline that studies matter, its properties,
composition, structure and the changes it undergoes during chemical
reactions.
• Matter is the general term for the material things around us; we can define
it as whatever occupies space and can be perceived by our senses.
• It is a fundamental science that plays a crucial role in our understanding of the
natural world and has a wide range of applications in various fields, including
medicine, industry, agriculture, and environmental science.
 Topic 1: The Atom
• An atom is the basic unit of matter, consisting of a nucleus at its center, which
contains protons and neutrons, and electrons orbiting the nucleus.
• They are the building blocks of all chemical elements and play a fundamental role
in chemistry and physics.
• Atoms can combine to form molecules through chemical bonds, and these
molecules can further interact to create various substances and compounds.
• Understanding the structure and behavior of atoms is crucial for explaining
the properties of matter and how different substances interact with each
other.
 Dalton’s atomic theory
• John Dalton (1766–1844) provided the basic theory that all
matter—whether element, compound, or mixture—is
composed of small particles called atoms

• John Dalton (1766–1844), an Englishman, began teaching at a Quaker

school when he was 12.
• His fascination with science included an intense interest in meteorology,
which led to an interest in the gases of the air and their ultimate
components, atoms.
• Dalton is best known for his atomic theory, in which he postulated that
the fundamental differences among atoms are their masses.
• He was the first to prepare a table of relative atomic weights.
• Dalton was a humble man with several apparent handicaps: He was not
articulate and he was color-blind, a terrible problem for a chemist.
• Despite these disadvantages, he helped to revolutionize the science of
chemistry.
 Dalton’s atomic theory
Postulates of Dalton’s Atomic Theory
1. All matter is composed of indivisible atoms. An atom is an
extremely small particle of matter that retains its identity during
chemical reactions.
2. An element is a type of matter composed of only one kind of atom (tiny
particles), each atom of a given kind having the same properties
(mass). Thus, the atoms of a given element have a characteristic
mass.
3. A compound is a type of matter composed of atoms of two or more
elements chemically combined in fixed proportions. The relative
numbers of any two kinds of atoms in a compound occur in simple
ratios. Water, for example, a compound of the elements hydrogen
and oxygen, consists of hydrogen and oxygen atoms in the ratio of 2
to 1.
4. A chemical reaction consists of the rearrangement of the atoms present
in the reacting substances to give new chemical combinations present
in the substances formed by the reaction. Atoms are not created,
destroyed, or broken into smaller particles by any chemical reaction
 Dalton’s theory explaining mass laws
• Mass conservation. Atoms cannot be created or destroyed or
converted into other types of atoms. Therefore, a chemical
reaction, in which atoms are combined differently, cannot possibly
result in a mass change.
• Definite composition. A compound is a combination of a specific
ratio of different, each of which has a particular mass. Thus,
each element in a compound constitutes a fixed fraction of the
total mass.
• Multiple proportions. Atoms of an element have the same mass and are
indivisible. The masses of element B that combine with a fixed mass of
element A give a small, whole-number ratio because different
numbers of B atoms combine with each A atom in different
compounds. Atoms of one element combine with atoms of other
elements to form compounds.

2
 Atomic symbol
• An atomic symbol is a one- or two-letter notation used to represent an
atom corresponding to a particular element.
- The first letter must be UPPERCASE
- The second letter, when present, must be LOWERCASE
- For example, chlorine has the symbol Cl, calcium – Ca
- Symbols come from the element name; several names come from
Latin
e.g. Sodium is given the symbol Na from its Latin name, natrium, Lead (Pb
from plumbum), Mercury (Hg from hydrargyrum), potassium (K from
kalium)
 The structure of an atom
• Although Dalton postulated that atoms were indivisible, experiments at the
beginning of the present century showed that atoms themselves consist of
particles.
 Fundamental particles of an atom
• The nucleus - The atom’s central core, which is positively charged and contains
most of the atom’s mass. Consists of two types of particles:
- Proton - positively charged particles
found in the nucleus of an atom.
They are relatively heavy compared
to other subatomic particles.
- Neutron - have no electrical charge,
making them electrically neutral.
They add to the mass of the nucleus
and help stabilize it. The number of
neutrons can vary within atoms of
the same element, resulting in
isotopes.
• Electrons - are negatively charged particles that orbit the nucleus of the atom
in electron shells or energy levels. They are much smaller & lighter compared
to protons & neutrons. Electrons are involved in chemical reactions and
determine an atom's chemical properties. The number and arrangement of
electrons determine the atom's chemical behaviour & reactivity
 Introduction to atom
• Additional information about the atom

 Located in the of the atom, which is the

 Protons are
 The number of protons in an atom determines its
, and this, in turn, defines the
 For example, hydrogen atoms have one proton,
carbon atoms have six, and so on

 Also found in the

 Neutrons are , meaning they
electrically
and help
 They provide additional
16
it in an atom of the same
in the
element give rise to
 Introduction to atom
• Additional information about the atom

 Electrons the nucleus in or

 These are much and
than protons and neutrons
 Involved in with other atoms
and

17
 Atomic structure: Electrons
J. J. Thomson (1897) English physicist
• Studied electrical discharges in partially evacuated tubes called cathode-ray
tubes.
• Beam from cathode ray tube deflected toward positively charged plate.
• Atoms contain negatively charged particles with a constant mass-to-charge ratio.
 Atomic structure: Electrons
• Thomson found that when high voltage was applied to the tube, a “ray” he
called a cathode ray (because it emanated from the negative electrode, or
cathode) was produced. Because this ray was produced at the negative electrode
and was repelled by the negative pole of an applied electric field.
• Thomson postulated that the ray was a stream of negatively charged particles,
now called electrons. From experiments in which he measured the deflection of
the beam of electrons in a magnetic field, Thomson determined the charge-to-
mass ratio of an electron
 Thomson model of the Atom
Plum-Pudding Mode
• e− distributed throughout diffuse, positively charged sphere.
 Mass of an Electron
Robert Millikan (1909)
• These experiments allowed him to determine the magnitude of the
electron charge. With this value and the charge-to-mass ratio
determined by Thomson, Millikan was able to calculate the mass of
the electron as 9.11 x 10-31 kg.
• Determined the mass and charge of an electron with his oil-droplet
experiment.
e− = −1.602 × 10−19 C (coulombs)
me = 9.109 × 10−28 g
 Mass of an Electron
Robert Millikan experiment
Atomizer to produce
Oil sprays
oil droplets

(+)

Microscope

X rays produce
(- ) charges on the oil
drops
Electrically
charged plates

22
 Radioactivity and the nuclear atom
Henri Becquerel (1896)
• He found accidentally that a piece of a mineral containing uranium could
produce its image on a photographic plate in the absence of light. He attributed
this phenomenon to a spontaneous emission of radiation by the uranium, which
he called radioactivity.
• Radioactivity: Spontaneous emission of high-energy radiation.
• Three types of radioactive emission: gamma (γ) rays, beta (β) particles, and alpha
(α) particles.
- gamma (γ) ray is high-energy
- beta particles (β) a high-speed electron;
- alpha α particle has a +2 charge
 The nuclear atom
Ernest Rutherford (1911)
• Performed experiments to explore radioactivity.
• Bombarded a thin gold foil with α particles to test Thomson’s model of the atom.
• Theory predicted that the α particles would travel through the foil with little or
no deflection.
• Results indicated presence of dense particle within the atom.
• Rutherford’s results could be explained only in terms of a nuclear atom—an
atom with a dense center of positive charge (the nucleus) with electrons moving
around the nucleus at a distance that is large relative to the nuclear radius.
 Rutherford’s Experiment

a) Expected results from “plum- b) Actual results.

pudding” model.

1. atoms positive charge is concentrated in the nucleus

2. proton (p) has opposite (+) charge of electron
3. mass of p is 1840 x mass of e-
 Summary of the atomic theory
• Several major discoveries at the turn of the 20th century resolved questions
about Dalton’s model and led to our current model of atomic structure.
• Cathode rays were shown to consist of negative particles (electrons) that exist in
all matter. J. J. Thomson measured their mass/charge ratio and concluded that
they are much smaller and lighter than atoms.
• Robert Millikan determined the charge of the electron, which he combined with
other data to calculate its mass.
• Ernest Rutherford proposed that atoms consist of a tiny, massive, positive
nucleus surrounded by electrons.

26
 Atomic theory today
• The atomic number of an element equals the number of protons in the nucleus
of each of its atoms. All atoms of an element have the same atomic number, and
the atomic number of each element is different from that of any other element.
• The mass number is the total number of protons and neutrons in the nucleus of
an atom. Each proton and each neutron contributes one unit to the mass
number.
• The atomic symbol (or element symbol) of an element is based on its English,
Latin, or Greek name
 Atomic mass units (amu)
• Comprise a relative scale to express the masses of atoms and
subatomic particles.
• The mass of an atom is measured relative to the mass of an atomic
standard. The modern standard is the carbon-12 atom, whose mass is
defined as exactly 12 atomic mass units.
• Thus, the atomic mass unit (amu) is therefore 1/12 the mass of a carbon-
12
atom.
Based on this standard, the 1H atom has a mass of 1.008 amu; in other
words, a
12C atom has almost 12 times the mass of an 1H atom.

1 amu = 1 Dalton (Da)

Isotopes: Aston’s positive ray alalyzer

Ne gas ions of
different masses
strike detector in
different locations.

Positive Ray Analyzer Results:

•Two different kinds of neon gas atoms existed:
»90% = 20 amu
»10% = 22 amu
•Aston proposed theory of “isotopes”.
 Isotopes
• Atoms of the same element that have (same number of protons) but
different numbers of neutrons (different mass).
• All atoms of an element have the same atomic number but not the same mass
number.
• For example, all carbon atoms (Z = 6) have 6 protons and 6 electrons, but only
98.89% of naturally occurring carbon atoms have 6 neutrons (A = 12). A small
percentage (1.10%) have 7 neutrons (A = 13), and even fewer (less than 0.01%)
have 8 (A = 14).
• The chemical properties of an element are primarily determined by the number
of electrons, so all isotopes of an element have nearly identical chemical
behavior, even though they have different masses.

12 13 14
6 C 6 C 6 C
98.89% 1.10% 0.01%
 Symbol of Isotopes
Atomic Mass (A) = {total
number of “nucleons”
(protons, neutrons in the
nucleus}.

A
X Element
al
Z Symbol

Atomic Number (Z) =

{the number of
protons in the
nucleus; determines
the identity of the
element}.
 Neon

Percent
Number of Number of A, Mass Natural
Symbol Protons Neutrons Abundance
Number
Ne-20 or 20 Ne
10 10 20 90.48%
10

Ne-21 or 21Ne
10 11 21 0.27%
10

Ne-22 or 22 Ne 10 12 22 9.25%
10
Do you now understand isotopes?

14
How many protons, neutrons, and electrons 6
are in C?
6 protons, 8 (14 - 6) neutrons, 6
electrons
11
How many protons, neutrons, and electrons are in 6
C?
 Average atomic masses
• The isotopic makeup of an element is determined by mass spectrometry, a
method for measuring the relative masses and abundances of atomic-scale
particles and molecules.
Natural Abundance
- Relative proportion of a given isotope compared to all the isotopes for the
element found in a natural sample.
- Expressed as percent.
Average Atomic Mass
- Weighted average mass of natural sample of an element,
- Calculated by multiplying the natural abundance of each isotope by its exact
mass in amu and then summing these products
 Relative atomic masses
• The mass of average atom of an element compared to 1/12 an atom of
12C isotope whose mass is arbitrarily fixed as 12.000 atomic mass

units(a.m.u) i.e.;
RAM = mass of atom of an element
1/
12 of one atom of
12C isotope

• Accurate relative atomic masses (RAM) are got from the mass
spectrometer which determines the isotopes of the element and
their relative abundance/availability.
• Using the relative abundances/availability of the isotopes, the
relative atomic mass (RAM) can be determined /calculated
 Examples
a) Neon is found in three isotopes in
nature.

Soln: Average atomic mass of neon:

- (19.9924 × 0.904838) + (20.99395 × 0.002696) + (21.9914 x
0.092465) =
20.1797 amu
b) Chlorine occurs as 75%1735 Cl and 25% 37 Cl isotopes.
Calculate
atomic mass
the of
relative 17
Chlorine.
c) Calculate the relative atomic mass of potassium given that it exist
as;
1
93.1%
K, 0.01% 40
1
K, 6.89% 41
1
K
39
9 9 9
 Examples
d) Silver (Ag; Z = 47) has 46 known isotopes, but only two occur
naturally, 107Ag and
109
Ag. Given the following data, calculate the atomic mass of Ag:
Isotope Mass (amu) Abundance (%)
107Ag
106.90509 51.84
109 Ag 108.90476 48.16
 Topic 2: Atomic models
• The first models identified the nucleus and described the atom’s structure
as mostly empty space, but it failed to explain electron behavior
 Atomic models
Bohr Atomic model

Proposed by in .

 Electrons move in specific, or around

the
 Electrons can only certain , the

 Electrons can between by

or (i.e., discrete packets of energy
(quantum))
 Electrons in the (closest to the
nucleus) have the

 Electrons in have
 Atomic models
Bohr Atomic model

 Explained the , known as the

buthad when applied to with

the of , which formed the

basis for
 Atomic models
Sommerfeld-Bohr Atomic model (extended
Bohr Model)
Proposed by in , it builds upon Bohr's model.

 Introduced and allowed for

more
for high-speed
 Allowed for the incorporation of
electrons
, especially for
for
the
fine (
structure of
with
 It introduced the concept of
)
 Atomic models
Sommerfeld-Bohr Atomic model (extended
Bohr Model)

 Improved in of more

 Demonstrated the need to consider more than just

Overall it addressed some limitations of the original Bohr model but
still had in explaining the of with
 Atomic models
Bohr-Sommerfeld quantum model

A collaboration between and in the

, combining their ideas.

from Bohr with

and corrections from Sommerfeld

 Introduced the concept of to describe

the shapes of electron orbits

 Introduced the concept of ( ),

which explained the behavior of and the
 Atomic models
Bohr-Sommerfeld quantum model

 Provided a more for the

 Represented a significant step towards the

 Topic 5: The Periodic Table

• It is a tabular arrangement of chemical elements, organized based on

their atomic number, electron configuration, and recurring chemical
properties.
• It is a fundamental tool in chemistry and provides a systematic way to
understand and predict the behavior of elements.
• At the end of 18th century, Lavoisier compiled a list of the 23 elements
known at that time;
• By 1870, 65 elements were known;
• By 1925, 88 elements;
• Today, there are 118 elements and still counting!
 Mendeleev’s Periodic Table
• Russian chemist Dmitrii
Mendeleev (1872)
• Ordered elements by increasing
atomic mass.
• Arranged elements in columns
based on similar chemical and
physical properties.
• Left open spaces in the table for
elements not yet discovered.
 The Modern Periodic Table
• The modern periodic table of the elements, based on Mendeleev’s
version (but arranged by atomic number, not mass).
• Also based on a classification of elements in terms of their physical and
chemical properties.
• Horizontal rows: called periods (1 → 7).
• Columns: contain elements of the same family or group (1 →18).
• Several groups have names as well as numbers
 The Modern Periodic Table
Non-
metals

Metalloids

Metal
s

Group 1: Alkali metals Group 17: Halogens

Group 2: Alkaline earth metals Group 18: Noble gases
 The Modern Periodic Table

The modern periodic table is a well-structured framework

with several key components:

 Periods are the across the periodic table

 There are , each corresponding to a particular
or of the elements
 Elements within the
, which influences their
and

, also known as , are the

down the periodic
table
The Modern Periodic Table
 The Modern Periodic Table

 There are labeled from 1 to 18

 Elements within the
because they have , the
the

• Elements are often classified into different blocks based on their

electron configurations.
 The periodic table is divided into four main ,
,
blocks: , and
 The and are the most familiar and
in everyday chemistry
 The and contain and
, respectively, distinct properties
characteristics with and
The Modern Periodic Table
 Organization of the Periodic Table
• Atomic number - The atomic number of an element is the number of protons in
its nucleus. It is also used to arrange elements in the periodic table, with
elements listed in order of increasing atomic number.
• Rows (periods) - The periodic table is divided into rows called "periods." There
are currently seven periods in the periodic table. Elements in the same period
have the same number of electron energy levels.
• Columns (groups) - The columns in the periodic table are called "groups" or
"families." Elements within the same group have similar chemical properties
because they have the same number of valence electrons, which are responsible
for an element's chemical reactivity.
• Periodic trends - The periodic table exhibits various trends and patterns. These
include atomic radius (size of atoms), electronegativity (ability to attract
electrons), ionization energy (energy required to remove an electron), and
chemical reactivity. These trends help chemists make predictions about how
elements will behave in chemical reactions.
 Broad categories of elements
Metals (left side and bottom of the table)
- About three-quarters of the elements are metals, including many main-
group elements and all the transition and inner transition elements.
- Generally shiny solids at room temperature (mercury is the only liquid)
that conduct heat and electricity well.
- They can be tooled into sheets (are malleable) and wires (are ductile).
Nonmetals (right side and top of the table)
- They are generally gases or dull, brittle solids at room temperature
(bromine is the only liquid) and conduct heat and electricity poorly.
Metalloids (between metals/nonmetals)
- Also called semimetals. Shiny solids (like metals); brittle (like
nonmetals); semiconductors.
- Lie along the staircase line, and have properties between those of metals
and nonmetals.
 Molecular compounds
Molecular Formulas:
- Describe the exact number and type of atoms present in one
molecule of a compound
(e.g., H2O, CO2, C6H12O6).
Empirical Formula:
- Gives the simplest whole-number ratio of elements in a compound
- Example: Glucose
»molecular formula = C6H12O6
»empirical formula = CH2O
 Periodic Trends
Atomic radius
- Increases as you move down a group - electrons are added to higher
energy levels (farther away from the nucleus.
- Decreases as you move left to right across a period - as the number of
protons in the nucleus increases, the positive charge increases and as a
result, the “pull” on the electrons increases.
Electron affinity
- Electron affinity is the energy gained by an atom when an electron is
added to it to form a negative ion, or conversely as the energy required
to detach an electron from a singly charged anion
- Across the period, increases due to the larger attraction from the
nucleus, and the atom "wanting" the electron more as it reaches
maximum stability.
- Down a group, decreases because of a large increase in the atomic
radius, electron-electron repulsion and the shielding effect of inner
electrons against the valence electrons of the atom.
 Periodic Trends
Ionic radius
- Ion is an atom or group or atoms that has a positive or negative charge
- An atom is electrically neutral because it has equal number of
protons (+) and number of electrons (-)
- Positive & negative ions form when electrons are transferred between
atoms
- atoms of METALS tend to form positive ions by losing 1 or more
electrons from their valence (outermost) shell
- an ion with a positive charge is called a
CATION. example: SODIUM (Na → Na+)
- atoms of NONMETALS tend to form negative ions by gaining 1 or more
electrons (& thus filling their outermost energy level)
- an ion with a negative charge is called an ANION.
example: CHLORINE (Cl → Cl-)
 Periodic Trends
Ionic radius
- Anions (negative ions) have full valence shells: they are larger than their
neutral atom.
- Cations (positive ions) have empty valence shells: they are smaller
than their neutral atom.
- The size of one ion compared to the next is the same pattern as
atomic radius
Ionization energy
- This is the energy required to remove outer electrons resulting in the
formation of a positive ion.
- Decreases as you move down a group - Electrons are in higher energy
levels as you move down a group; they are further away from the
positive “pull” of the nucleus and therefore easier to remove.
- Increases across a period (from left to right) - The increasing charge
in the nucleus as you move across a period exerts greater “pull” on
 Periodic Trends
Electronegativity
- Is a measure of the ability of an atom or molecule to attract pairs of
electrons or the tendency of an atom to attract electrons of another atom
- Down a group - Decreases due to the longer distance between the
nucleus and the valence electron shell, thereby decreasing the attraction,
making the atom have less of an attraction for electron - higher energy
levels means the electrons are farther away from the nucleus;
greater distance = decreased attraction
- Across the period - increases due to the stronger attraction that the atoms
obtain as the nuclear charge increases.
- nuclear charge is increasing;
- atomic radius is decreasing;
- The ease of donating/losing electrons is called electropositivity. The
ease of donating/losing electrons is called electropositivity
 Periodic Trends
Metallic property
- Metallic property decreases across a period with increase in number of
valence electrons as well as a decrease in atomic radius, and it increases
down the group with increase in number of shells and atomic radius.
 Topic 6: Bond Formation
- Chemical bonding is process by which atoms combine to form
molecules and compounds.
- It involves the interaction of electrons in the outermost energy levels
(valence electrons) of atoms.
- Elements tend to give, receive or share electrons in order to attain a stable
noble gas type of electron configuration
- There are three primary types of chemical bonds:
- Ionic bonding
- Covalent bonding
- Metallic bonding
 Bond Formation
1. Electrovalent bond formation (ionic boding)
- Occurs when atoms with significantly different electronegativities come
together to form a chemical bond. The atoms transfer electrons to form
charged ions, resulting in ionic compounds
- One or more electrons are transferred from one atom (usually a metal) to
another atom (usually a nonmetal).
- Extensive explanations about ionic bonding:
a) Electron transfer
- In ionic bonding, one atom donates electrons (cation) and another atom
accept electrons (anion)
- This transfer results in the formation of oppositely charged ions; positively
charged ions (cations) and negatively charged ions (anions) that are
attracted to each other due to electrostatic forces.
 Bond Formation
b) Electrostatic attraction
- The electrostatic attraction between oppositely charged ions is the driving
force behind ionic bonding
- The force of attraction is strong, resulting in the formation of stable ionic
compounds
c) Octet rule
- Ions formed in ionic bonding typically strive to achieve a stable electron
configuration, often following the octet rule
- The octet rule states that atoms are most stable when they have a full
outer electron shell, typically containing 8 electrons
 Bond Formation
d) Formation of ionic compounds
- Ionic compounds are formed when positively charged cations and
negatively charged anions come together to balance their charges and
form a neutral compound
- The ratio of cations to anions in an ionic compound is determined by the
charges on the ions
- Example: Sodium chloride
(NaCl)
- One sodium ion balances
one chloride ion to form a
neutral compound.
 Bond Formation
e) Lewis dot structures for ions
- In Lewis dot structures for ions, square brackets are used to denote the
charge on the ion
- E.g. the Lewis dot structure for a sodium ion (Na+) is written as [Na]+,
indicating the loss of one electron and +1 charge
 Bond Formation
Properties of ionic compounds
- Crystalline solid at room temperature
- Very high melting and boiling point due to strong ionic bond
- Soluble in H2O because water molecules can surround and
separate the ions, allowing them to dissolve.
- Insoluble in nonpolar solvents.
- Nonconductor of heat
- Conducts electricity in aqueous solutions (poor conductors of
electricity in their solid state)
 Bond Formation
2. Covalent bond formation
- A covalent bond is a form of chemical bonding that is characterized
by the sharing of pairs of electrons between atoms.
- It is a fundamental concept in chemistry, representing one of the
primary ways in which atoms can form stable molecules
- It occurs when atoms share electrons to achieve a stable electron
configuration
- They are typically observed in non-metals and play a critical role in
organic chemistry
 Bond Formation
- Detailed summaries regarding covalent bonding:

a) Electron sharing
❑ Covalent bonding involves the sharing of electrons between two atoms
❑ Each atom contributes one or more electrons to the shared pair, resulting in a
naturally beneficial arrangement.
b) Lewis dot structures
❑ Lewis dot structures are often used to represent covalent bonds. In thee
structures, dots or lines are used to indicate shared electrons between atoms
❑ The octet rule, which states that atoms tend to share electrons to achieve a
full outer electron shell (8 electrons), is a guiding principle in forming Lewis
structures
c) Electronegativity
❑ It is a measure of an atom’s ability to attract electrons in a covalent bond
❑ Atoms with similar electronegativities tend to share electrons more equally,
leading to nonpolar covalent bonds; while atoms with different
electronegativities share electrons unequally, resulting in polar covalent
Bond Formation

70
 Bond Formation
d) Multiple bonds
❑ Atoms can form single, double or triple covalent bonds depending on
the number of electron pairs they share
❑ Double and triple bonds involve the sharing of two and three electron
pairs, respectively leading to stronger and shorter bonds
❑ Examples include double bond in oxygen (O2) and triple bond in
nitrogen (N2)

oxygen (O2) nitrogen (N2)

 Bond Formation
e) Polar vs non-polar covalent bonds
i) Polar covalent bonds
❑ Occur when atoms with significantly different electronegativities share
electrons
❑ The unequal sharing leads to an uneven distribution of electron density,
creating partial positive and negative charges on the atoms
❑ Water (H2O) is an example since the oxygen atom is more electronegative
than the hydrogen atoms resulting in a partial negative charge on oxygen
and partial positive charges on the hydrogens
ii) Nonpolar covalent bonds
❑ Occur when atoms with similar electronegativities share electrons more
equally, resulting in a symmetrical distribution of electron density
❑ Diatomic gases like nitrogen (N2), oxygen (O2) and hydrogen (H2) exhibit
non polar covalent bonding since they consist of two atoms of the same
element sharing electrons equally
 Bond Formation
f) Co-ordinate (dative covalent) bonding
- It is covalent bond which occurs when two atoms share a pair of electrons, but
both electrons in the bond come from one of the atoms.
- One atom donates a lone pair of electrons to another atom, forming a shared
electron pair between them.
- The atom that donates the electrons is referred to as the "donor" or “Lewis base”
while the atom accepting electrons is called the "acceptor" or "Lewis acid.“
- Dative bonds are often depicted using an arrow (→) to show the movement of the
electron pair from the donor atom to the acceptor atom.
- It is commonly found in coordination compounds and complex ions.
 Bond Formation
- E.g. formation of the ammonium ion (NH₄⁺) where ammonia (NH₃)
donates a lone pair of electrons to a hydrogen ion (H⁺), resulting in the
formation of NH₄⁺
- Another example is formation of CO
 Bond Formation
Properties of covalent compounds
- They are simple molecular
- They have low melting and boiling points
- They are insoluble in H2O but soluble in nonpolar solvents.
- They are mostly nonconductor of heat and electricity.
 Bond Formation
3. Hydrogen bond
- A hydrogen bond is a chemical bond that occurs between a hydrogen atom (H)
and an electronegative atom such as oxygen (O), nitrogen (N), or fluorine (F).
- It is primarily an electrostatic force of attraction between a hydrogen (H) atom
which is covalently bonded to a more electronegative "donor" atom or group, and
another electronegative atom bearing a lone pair of electrons—the hydrogen
bond acceptor.
- It is a relatively weak bond compared to covalent or ionic bonds but still plays a
crucial role in various chemical and biological processes.
- It plays a significant role in the
behavior of substances like water and
biological molecules
- In hydrogen bonding, the hydrogen
atom acts as a bridge between the
highly electronegative atom and
another electronegative atom in a
neighboring molecule
 Bond Formation
4. Metallic bonding
- It is a type of chemical bonding that occur in metals and metalloids
- Metals are formed from elements on the left hand side of the periodic table.
- Having generally low electronegativity they tend to lose their valence electrons
easily.
- In metallic bonding, positively charged metal ions are held together by a “sea” of
delocalized electrons
- Delocalized electrons are electrons that are not associated with a specific atom but
are free to move throughout the metal lattice
 Bond Formation
4. Metallic bonding

 Metals have a known as a . In

this
structure,
.

 The ,

filling the spaces between metal cations

 The

creating

a that holds the metal

lattice together
 Bond Formation
4. Metallic bonding

Metallic bonds are responsible for the distinctive properties of

metals, including:

Metals can be hammered, rolled, or stretched into various

shapes without breaking. This property is

Metals can be drawn into wires without breaking, as the

.
Metals are excellent conductors of heat and electricity.
The
.
Metals have a characteristic shine or luster
 Bond Formation
4. Metallic bonding

 The of metals can based on the

and its . For example, some metals are
, and some may have
, the ,
can also . For example, the
addition of carbon to iron creates steel, which is stronger
and more corrosion-resistant than pure iron

 While metallic bonding provides many advantages, it can also

result in some challenges, such as
 Metals can like
and
, leading to the

and
 Bond Formation
4. Metallic bonding
 Bond Formation
4. Metallic bonding

Metallic bonding is central to various industrial and technological

applications. Some examples include:

Metals like copper and aluminum are used for electrical wiring
due to their .

Metals are used in for their , , and

.

Metals are used in and due to their

.

like gold and silver are valued for their and

.
 Bond Formation
5. Hydrophilic and Hydrophobic interactions
- These describe the interactions or forces that govern how substances behave in
the presence of water.
- Hydrophilic (water-loving) - Hydrophilic substances are those that have an
affinity for water. They interact readily with water molecules due to their polar or
charged nature. Polar molecules, such as those with polar covalent bonds or ionic
bonds, tend to be hydrophilic. This is because water is a polar solvent, with a
partial positive charge on its hydrogen atoms and a partial negative charge on its
oxygen atom. Hydrophilic substances dissolve or mix well in water. Examples of
hydrophilic molecules include sugars, salts, and most proteins.
- Hydrophobic (water-fearing) - Hydrophobic substances are the opposite; they
repel or do not interact well with water. They are typically nonpolar and lack
significant charge separation. Because water molecules are more attracted to
each other (cohesion) than to hydrophobic molecules, hydrophobic substances
tend to aggregate or clump together to minimize their contact with water.
Examples of hydrophobic molecules include fats, oils, and some parts of
biological membranes, like the lipid bilayer.
 Bond Formation
6. Van der Waals bonding

 Van der Waals forces are a

 They are generally but

or play a crucial role in the behavior of
substances and
 Van der Waals forces include

are present in
. For example, they are responsible for the

are found in .
example is , where the A
, and the is n

is
 Bond Formation
6. Van der Waals bonding

 London dispersion forces, also known as or

, are the

 These forces

 For a , there may be

creating an

an
, leading to a between
 The
them
 The of London dispersion forces
and of molecules.
and
are more likely to experience
 Bond Formation
6. Van der Waals bonding

86
 Bond Formation
6. Van der Waals bonding

 Dipole-dipole interactions . In
polar molecules, there ,
is a resulting in (the region where
a electronsare (the
drawn away) region
and a is with to
excess
electrons) , leading to the
 The an
 Dipole-dipole interactions are
 Bond Formation
6. Van der Waals bonding

88
 Bond Formation
6. Van der Waals bonding

 Van der Waals forces are the

and play
a , ,
and vital
 They 89
are particularly significant
role in
the in
, and , such asand
 Topic 7: Chemical reactions
• A chemical change or chemical reaction is a process in which one or more pure
substances are converted into one or more different pure substances.
• Chemical changes lead to the formation of substances that make our lives more
productive and much more.
• In chemical reactions, atoms are rearranged and regrouped through the breaking
and making of chemical bonds.
• For example, when hydrogen gas, H2(g), is burned in the presence of gaseous
oxygen, O2(g), a new substance, liquid water, H2O(l ), forms.
• Chemical equations give the following information about chemical reactions.
- Show the formulas for the substances that take part in the reaction.
- Show the physical states of the reactants and products are provided in the
equation.
- Show the relative numbers of particles of each reactant and product are indicated
by numbers placed in front of the formulas. These numbers are called coefficients.
An equation containing correct coefficients is called a balanced equation.
 Chemical reactions
Atomic Mass
• Atomic mass is the mass of an atom of a chemical element usually expressed in
atomic mass units (amu) e.g. the atomic mass of hydrogen is approximately 1
amu, and that of carbon is about 12 amu.
Avogadro’s Number
• Avogadro’s number (6.022×1023) is the number of atoms, ions, or molecules in
one mole of a substance. It is used to convert between the number of particles
and the amount in moles.
Mole
• A mole is a standard unit in chemistry that measures the amount of a substance.
One mole contains 6.022×1023 entities (atoms, molecules, ions, etc.).
No. of moles = Mass​
Atomic or Molar Mass
Example 1
How many moles are there in 80g of nitrogen gas?
 Chemical reactions
Molecular Mass
• Molecular mass (or molecular weight) is the mass of one molecule of a
compound, calculated by summing the atomic masses of all atoms in the
molecule.
• E.g, the molecular mass of water (H₂O) is approximately 18 amu (2 × 1 for
hydrogen + 16 for oxygen).
Percentage Composition
• Percentage composition refers to the percentage by mass of each element in a
compound. It’s calculated by dividing the mass of each element in a compound
by the total molecular mass of the compound, then multiplying by 100.
Example
• For water (H₂O), the percentage composition is:
• Hydrogen: 2×1/18×100% = 11.1%
• Oxygen: 16/18×100% = 88.9%
 Chemical reactions
Chemical formulas
Molecular Formula - The actual number of atoms of each element in a molecule of
the compound (the exact number and type of atoms present in one molecule of a
compound)
(e.g., H2O, CO2, C6H12O6).
Empirical Formula - The simplest whole-number ratio of atoms in a compound.
- Example: Glucose
»molecular formula = C6H12O6
»empirical formula = CH2O
 Chemical reactions
Determination of empirical and molecular formula
- Find the percentage composition of each element.
- Convert the percentages to grams.
- Convert grams to moles.
- Divide by the smallest number of moles to get the ratio.
- Use the ratio to find the empirical formula.
- Compare the empirical formula’s mass to the molecular mass to find the
molecular formula if needed.
 Chemical reactions
Chemical Reactions and Equations
• A chemical reaction involves the transformation of reactants into products.
- Reactants - Substances consumed in a chemical reaction.
- Products - Substances formed as a result of the reaction.
• Chemical equations represent these reactions, showing the reactants on the left
side and the products on the right, connected by an arrow.
• Example: 2H2 + O2 → 2H2O
 Chemical reactions
Stoichiometry
• Stoichiometry is the calculation of reactants and products in chemical reactions.
• It uses balanced equations to determine how much of each substance is needed
or produced.
Steps in Stoichiometry
- Write the balanced chemical equation.
- Convert quantities of known substances to moles.
- Use the mole ratio from the balanced equation to find moles of the desired
substance.
- Convert moles to the desired unit if necessary.
 Chemical reactions
Balancing Reactions
• Balancing chemical equations ensures that the number of atoms of each element
is the same on both sides of the reaction. This is based on the law of
conservation of mass.
• Example: To balance H2 + O2 → H2O, adjust the coefficients
Limiting Reagent
• The reactant that is completely consumed first and limits the amount of product
that can be formed. (**see more at the back**)
 Chemical reactions
Product Yield
• The amount of product obtained from a reaction. This can be expressed as:
• Theoretical yield - The maximum amount of product that could be formed
from the given amounts of reactants.
• Actual yield - The amount of product actually obtained from the reaction.
• Percent yield Actual Yield X 100%
Theoretical Yield
Example: 10.4 g of Ba(OH)2 was reacted with an excess of Na2SO4 to give a
precipitate of BaSO4. If the reaction actually yielded 11.2 g of BaSO4,
what is a) the theoretical yield of BaSO4 and
b) what is the percentage yield of BaSO4?
The balanced equation for the reaction is:
Ba(OH)2(aq) + Na2SO4(aq)  BaSO4(s) + 2 NaOH(aq)
 Chemical reactions
Step 1. Convert to moles
Ba(OH)2(aq) + Na2SO4(aq)  BaSO4(s) + 2 NaOH(aq)
1 mole 1 mole 1 mole 2 moles
Moles Ba(OH)2
Mol. Mass Ba(OH)2 = 137.3 + 2 x (16.0 + 1.0)
= 171.3 g/mol
Moles = 10.4 g x 1 mol = 0.0607 moles
171.3 g
 Chemical reactions
• Step 2. Work out how much BaSO4 will be formed
Ba(OH)2(aq) + Na2SO4(aq)  BaSO4(s) + 2 NaOH(aq)
1 mole 1 mole 1 mole 2 moles
0.0607 moles 0.0607 moles
• When it says that one reagent is in excess, that means we do not have to worry
about that reagent, and the other one is the limiting reagent, in this case the
BaSO4.
• We see that 1 mole of Ba(OH)2 will produce 1 mole of BaSO4. Our factor is thus
0.0607, and we will get 0.0607 moles of BaSO4.
Percent yield = Actual yield x 100 %
Theoretical yield
= 11.2 g x 100 %
14.29 g
= 78.4% yield
 Oxidation and reduction processes
- These are processes that involve the transfer of electrons
between substances - describes all chemical reactions in
which there is a net change in atomic charge
- It is a class of reactions that include:
- formation of a compound from its elements
- all combustion reactions
- reactions that generate electricity
- reactions that produce cellular energy
- The key idea is the net movement of electrons from one
reactant to the other
 Oxidation and reduction processes
Oxidation reaction
- Is loss of electrons - a chemical process in which a substance loses
electrons, often accompanied by an increase in its oxidation state or a
decrease in its electron density.
- Oxidizing agents - are substances containing the element(s) that
accept electrons, allowing another element(s) to be oxidized. By
accepting electrons, the element(s) in the oxidizing agent are reduced.
These species accepts the electrons and facilitates the oxidation of the
other substance e.g. oxygen (O2), hydrogen peroxide (H2O2).
Characteristics of oxidation reaction
- Loss of electrons - In an oxidation reaction, one or more atoms or
molecules lose electrons. Electrons are negatively charged particles, so
when they are lost from a substance, that substance becomes more
positively charged.
- Increase in oxidation state - Oxidation often results in an increase in the
oxidation state of the atoms or ions involved. The oxidation state is a measure
of the degree of oxidation of an atom in a chemical compound usually
represented by a positive or negative number.
- Oxidation often results in the formation of bonds between atoms with higher
 Oxidation and reduction processes
Reduction reaction
- Is gain of electrons - a chemical process in which a substance gains
electrons, decreases its oxidation state, or undergoes a decrease in the
number of oxygen atoms bonded to it.
- Reducing agents - are substances containing the element(s) that
donate electrons, allowing another element(s) to be reduced. By
donating electrons, the element(s) in the reducing agent are oxidized.
These species does the reducing and the substance(s) being oxidized are
the reducing agents.
Characteristics of reduction reaction
- Reduced substances are often said to have been "deoxidized" or "combined
with hydrogen," but, like oxidation, reduction can occur without oxygen or
hydrogen involvement.
- Reduction reactions are accompanied by a gain of electrons, and the
substance being reduced is called the oxidizing agent because it causes
another substance to be oxidized by accepting electrons.
 Oxidation and reduction processes

Na + Cl NaCl
Na-Oxidized Cl-Reduced Na-(+1)
Reducing Oxidizing Cl-(-1)
0 0
 Oxidation and reduction processes
Oxidation-reduction reactions (Redox Reactions)
- Redox reactions involves both oxidation and reduction processes
occurring simultaneously - one substance loses electrons (oxidation),
and another gains those electrons (reduction).
- The substance that gets oxidized is the reducing agent, and the
substance that gets reduced is the oxidizing agent.
 Oxidation and reduction processes
Oxidation State/Oxidation number
- It describes the apparent charge of an atom within a molecule or ion
and helps in understanding how electrons are distributed in chemical
compounds and how atoms participate in chemical reactions.
- Oxidation numbers are assigned to individual atoms based on a set of
rules and conventions.
 Oxidation and reduction processes
Rules for assigning Oxidation Numbers
- The oxidation number of an atom in its elemental form is always zero
e.g. the oxidation number of oxygen, nitrogen or any other element in
its natural state is 0.
- The oxidation number of a monatomic ion is equal to the charge of the
ion e.g. oxidation number of Na+ is +1, and the oxidation number of Cl-
is -1.
- In compounds, the sum of oxidation numbers must be equal to the
overall charge of the compound e.g. for neutral compound, the sum of
oxidation numbers is zero.
- Hydrogen has an oxidation number of +1 when bonded to nonmetals
and -1 when bonded to metals.
- Oxygen usually has an oxidation number of -2 in compounds, except
in peroxides (e.g., H2O2), where it has an oxidation number of -1.
- Group 1 metals (alkali metals) have an oxidation number of +1, and
Group 2 metals (alkaline earth metals) have an oxidation number of +2
in their compounds.
 Oxidation and reduction processes
Rules for specific atoms or periodic table groups
 Oxidation and reduction processes
Examples
- In H2O, the oxidation number of hydrogen is +1, and that of oxygen is -
2.
- In NaCl (table salt), the oxidation number of sodium is +1, and the
oxidation number of chlorine is -1.
- In H2SO4 (sulfuric acid), the oxidation number of hydrogen is +1, the
oxidation number of oxygen is -2 (except in the peroxide group), and
the oxidation number of sulfur varies but can be calculated as +6.
Oxidation and Reduction
- In chemical reactions, the oxidation number of an element can change.
When an atom's oxidation number increases, it undergoes oxidation.
When it decreases, it undergoes reduction.
- "OIL RIG" is often used to remember: Oxidation Is Loss (of electrons),
Reduction Is Gain (of electrons).
Oxidation Number and Balancing Equations
- Oxidation numbers are useful for balancing chemical equations, in
redox
 Oxidation and reduction processes
Calculation of oxidation numbers
- Determine the oxidation number of each element in these compounds:
a) CaO (s)
b) KNO3(s)
c) KMnO4
d) NaHSO4(aq)
e) CaCO3(s)
f) H2O (l)
g) H2SO4 (l)
h) Fe2O3
i) Cr2(SO4)3
j) (Cr2O7)2-
k) K2Cr2O7
l) CrO42-
m) SO42-
n) SO32-
o) [CrCl2(H2O)4)]+
 Oxidation and reduction processes
Calculation of oxidation numbers
- Identify the oxidizing agent and reducing agent in each of the following:
a) 2H2(g) + O2(g) 2H2O (g)
b) Cu (s) + 4HNO3(aq) Cu(NO3)2(aq) + 2NO2(g) + 2H2O (l)
 Balancing Equations
- Chemical reactions occur when bonds (between the electrons of atoms) are
formed or broken
- Chemical reactions involve
changes in the chemical composition of matter
the making of new materials with new properties
energy changes:
Bond breaking absorbs Energy (endothermic process)
Bond making releases Energy (exothermic process)
- Symbols represent elements
- Formulas describe compounds
- Chemical equations describe a chemical reaction
 Chemical equations
- A chemical equation is written as an expression similar to a mathematic
equation that can be compared to a recipe that a chemist follows in order to
produce desired results.

Depict the kind of reactants and products and their relative amounts in a
reaction.
4 Al (s) + 3 O2 (g) ---> 2 Al2O3 (s)
The numbers in the front are called stoichiometric coefficients
The letters (s), (g), and (l) are the physical states of compounds.
 Chemical equations
- Because of the principle of the conservation of
matter (matter can not be created or destroyed) an
equation must be balanced.
- It must have the same number of atoms of the
same kind on both sides.
- Law of Conservation of Energy MUST ALSO BE
FOLLOWED!
- Energy changes are written in (endo-/ exothermic
reactions)

Lavoisier, 1788
 Chemical equations
- All chemical equations have reactants and products.
- The chemical equation is expressed as follows:
Reactants  Products
- The arrow is equivalent to an “=“ math. When describing the equation the word
“yields” or “produces” is used instead of equals

Example
C + O2  CO2

- This reads “carbon plus oxygen react to yield carbon dioxide”

 Balancing a chemical equation
- A chemical equation is balanced when the ions or atoms found on the reactant
side of the equation equals that found on the product side.
- The arrow can be considered the balance point.
- Symbols used in equations
Solid (s)
Liquid (l)
Gas (g)
Aqueous solution (aq) (dissolved in water)
H2SO4
Catalyst or Pt

Escaping gas ()

Change of temperature/ heat energy ( or + 3kJ or – 3kJ) *there is no
subtraction…a negative sign means released/exothermic
 Chemical reactions and equations

Reactants Products

Driving forces:
a) Color change
b) Formation of a solid/precipitate
c) Evolution of a gas
d) Evolution or absorption of heat
 Balancing a chemical equation
- When balancing a chemical reaction you may add coefficients in front of the
compounds to balance the reaction, but you may not change the subscripts.
- Changing the subscripts changes the compound. Subscripts are determined
by the valence electrons (charges for ionic or sharing for covalent)
- Think back to naming compounds/ determining formulas. NaCl exists,
because Na is + and Cl is -, but NaCl2 does NOT exist since you would not
have a neutral compound! You can’t just add a number to a formula to
balance an equation.
Mole ratios
- A mole ratio converts moles of one compound in a balanced chemical
equation into moles of another compound.
Subscripts vs coefficients

The subscripts tell you how

many atoms of a particular
element are in a compound.
The coefficient tells you
about the quantity, or
number, of molecules of the
compound.
 Chemical equations
4 Al(s) + 3 O2(g) ---> 2 Al2O3(s)
This equation means
4 Al atoms + 3 O2 molecules ---produces---> 2 molecules of Al2O3
AND/OR
4 moles of Al + 3 moles of O2 ---produces---> 2 moles of Al2O3

8 Al(s) + 6 O2(g) ---> 4 Al2O3(s)

Al = 8 Al = 8
O = 12 O = 12
Chemical equations
 Steps to balancing equations
- There are four basic steps to balancing a chemical equation.
1. Write the correct formula for the reactants and the products. DO NOT TRY
TO BALANCE IT YET! You must write the correct formulas first. **And
most importantly, once you write them correctly DO NOT CHANGE THE
FORMULAS!
2. Find the number of atoms for each element on the left side. Compare those
against the number of the atoms of the same element on the right side.
3. Determine where to place coefficients in front of formulas so that the left
side has the same number of atoms as the right side for EACH element in
order to balance the equation.
4. Check your answer to see if:
The numbers of atoms on both sides of the equation are now balanced
The coefficients are in the lowest possible whole number ratios. (reduced)
 Balancing equations

___ H2(g) + ___ O2(g) ---> ___ H2O(l)

- What Happened to the Other Oxygen

Atom?????
- This equation is not balanced!
- Two hydrogen atoms from a hydrogen molecule
(H2) combine with one of the oxygen atoms
from an oxygen molecule (O2) to form H2O.
- Then, the remaining oxygen atom combines
with two more hydrogen atoms (from another
H2 molecule) to make a second H2O molecule.
 Balance this equation
Na + Cl2 NaCl
- **note that the number of sodiums balance but the chlorine does not. We will
have to use coefficients in order to balance this equation.
- ** insert the subscripts - Now the chlorine balances but the sodium does not!
So we go back and balance the sodium.
- **finally balance - Since the number of each element on the reactant side and
the product side of the equation are equal, the equation is balanced.
- Balance this
___ Al(s) + ___ Br2(l) ---> ___ Al2Br6(s)
 Limiting reagent
• Calculations of limiting reactant bring quantitative understanding to chemical
reactions
• Completely consumed in a chemical reaction
• Determines the amount of product formed
• The reactant that produces the least amount of product
Theoretical yield
• The amount of product that can be made based on the amount of the limiting
reactant
Actual yield
• The amount of product actually or experimentally produced
The percent yield
• %yield = (actual/theoretical) x 100
 Limiting reagent
• An analogous situation occurs with chemical reactions. Consider the reaction:
2 H2(g) + O2(g) → 2 H2O(l)
2 mol + 1 mol 2 mol
• If we have exactly 2 mol of H2 and 1 mol of O2, then we can make 2 mol of
water. But what if we have 4 mol of H2 and 1 mol of O2.
• Now we can make only 2 mol H2O with 2 mol H2 left over.
• In this case the O2 is the limiting reagent.
• The limiting reagent is the one with nothing left over.
 Limiting reagent
Container 1 Before and After Reaction 1

All the hydrogen and nitrogen atoms combine.

Container 2 Before and After Reaction 2

Before the reaction After the reaction

 Limiting reagent
• Multiplying an equation through by a common multiple
• We can multiply all the coefficients in a balanced equation by any multiple, and
it still has the correct ratios of moles.
• Thus, if we have:
Zn(s) + 2HCl(aq)  ZnCl2(aq) + H2(g)
1 mole 2 moles 1 mole + 1 mole
• If we have 2 moles of Zn(s), this gives: (x 2)
2 moles 4 moles 2 moles 2 moles
• or if we have 0.5 moles Zn(s) we have: (x 0.5)
0.5 moles 1 mole 0.5 moles 0.5 moles
 Limiting reagent
Methods used to determine the limiting reactant
(i) Calculate the moles needed of each reactant and compare with the moles given
(ii) Divide the moles of each reactant by its stoichiometric coefficient and then
compare them
(iii) Calculate the moles of product produced by each reactant and compare them
 Limiting reagent
• Example 1: Consider the reaction of H2 and N2 to give NH3, and assume we
have 3.0 mol N2 and 6.0 mol H2.
• We have the balanced equation:
N2(g) + 3 H2(g) → 2 NH3(g)
1 mol 3 mol 2 mol
Factor = moles N2 we have
moles N2 in equation
= 3.0 mol N2
1.0 mol N2
= 3.0 (multiply all coefficients in balanced equation by
this factor)
 Limiting reagent
• Multiply all coefficients by factor (x 3):
N2(g) + 3 H2(g) → 2 NH3(g)
1 mol 3 mol 2 mol
3 mol 3 x 3 = 9 mol 3 x 2 = 6 mol
• Try N2 as limiting reagent:
• 3 mol N2 requires how many moles H2?
= 3 x 3 = 9 mol
• We only have 6 mol H2, so H2 is the limiting reagent.
 Limiting reagent
• Example 2: Divide the moles of each reactant by its stoichiometric coefficient
Consider the following reaction:
2 Na3PO4(aq) + 3 Ba(NO3)2(aq) Ba3(PO4)2 + 6 NaNO3
• How much Ba3(PO4)2 can be formed if we have in the solutions 3.50 g sodium
phosphate and 6.40 g barium nitrate?
• Step 1. Convert to moles
• First work out numbers of Moles:

Na3PO4 = 3.50 g x 1 mol = 0.0213 mol

164 g
Ba(NO3)2= 6.40 g x 1 mol = 0.0245 mol
261 g
 Limiting reagent
• Step 2. Divide moles by its stoichiometric coefficient
2 Na3PO4(aq) + 3 Ba(NO3)2(aq) Ba3(PO4)2 + 6 NaNO3
Na3PO4 : 0.0213 mol = 0.01065
2 mol
Ba(NO3)2 : 0.0245 mol = 0.00817 LR
3 mol
 Limiting reagent
• Example 3: Calculate the amount of product produced by each reactant
1N2(g) + 3H2(g) → 2NH3(g)
Given 3.0 mole 6.0 mole
3.0 mol N2 x 2 mol NH3 = 6.0 mol NH3
1 mol N2
6.0 mol H2 x 2 mol NH3 = 4.0 mol NH3 (theoretical yield)
3 mol H2
• The reactant that produces the least amount of product is the L.R.H2
 Limiting reagent
Example 4: Zn metal (2.00 g) plus solution of AgNO3 (2.50 g) reacts according to:
Zn(s) + 2 AgNO3(aq)  Zn(NO3)2+ 2 Ag(s)
1 mol 2 mol
• Which is the limiting reagent?
• How much Zn will be left over?
• Step 1. Convert to moles
Zn = 65 g/mol
AgNO3 = 108 + 14 + (3 x 16) = 170 g/mol
Zn = 2.0 g x1 mol = 0.0308 mol
65 g
AgNO3 = 2.50 g x 1 mol = 0.0147 mol
170 g
 Limiting reagent
• Step 2. Guess limiting reagent
Zn(s) + 2 AgNO3(aq)  Zn(NO3)2+ 2 Ag(s)
1 mol 2 mol
0.0308 0.0147
• In this case it seems clear that AgNO3 must be the limiting reagent, because the
equation says we must have 2 mols of AgNO3 for each mol of Zn(s), but in fact
we have more moles of Zn(s).
• You can check this by dividing the moles of each reactant by their coefficients
AgNO3 = 0.0147/2 = 0.00735
Zn = 0.0308/1 = 0.0308
Zn(s) + 2 AgNO3(aq)  Zn(NO3)2+ 2 Ag(s)
1 mol 2 mol
0.0308 0.00735
• There are 0.0305 mol of Zn, which is more than the 0.00735 mol of AgNO 3, so
 Limiting reagent
How much Zn is left over?
• Use the limiting reactant to determine this:
0.0147 mol AgNO3 x 1 mol Zn x 65 g Zn
2 mol AgNO3 1 mol Zn
= 0.47775 g Zn
• Subtract this from the amount of Zn available:
2.00 g Zn - 0.4775g Zn = 1.52 g Zn in excess
 Limiting reagent
• Practice exercise: Nitrogen gas can be prepared by passing gaseous ammonia
over solid copper (II) oxide at high temperatures. If 18.1 g of NH 3 is reacted
with 90.4 g of CuO.
NH3(g) + CuO(s) → N2(g) + Cu(s) + H2O(g) (unbalanced).
• Which is the limiting reagent and how many grams of N 2 will be formed?
 Electromagnetic waves
Definition of key terminologies

 A is a range of values or components organized based on a

particular characteristic or property, resembling a continuous,
unbroken sequence that gradually transitions from one state to
another
 It is akin to a colorful lineup or a series of things arranged
in a specific order
 A rainbow with colors ordered from red to violet is a
natural example of a spectrum
 “ ” is the plural form of the word “ ”
Definition of key terminologies
 Definition of key terminologies

is the , pieces of things, like particles that

make up atoms
 These particles, such as and
(i.e., particles of light), behave in ways that are

described by set of
called
a “
”
therefore, refers to the and
that
things follow at the
 Definition of key terminologies

, also known , is
as
a well-established physics theory
governing theat everyday scales
behavior of
 It relies on the laws formulated by
and is
, allowing for precise
predictions of142 a system’s future
behavior if its initial state (position,
velocity, etc.) is
 Definition of key terminologies

is the branch of
comprehending physics essential for at
 It introduces and ,
challenging classical intuitions
and about reality
 Formulated on
and ,
, quantum mechanics is inherently
allowing predictions only in terms of , even
when the initial system state is
known
 Electromagnetic waves

 The encompasses a wide range of

waves,
spanning all frequencies and wavelengths
 Each wave within the spectrum possesses and

finds unique applications

 Electromagnetic waves are , with oscillations
occurring

to the wave’s direction of propagation, characterized

by alternating and fields

Electromagnetic waves

145
 Electromagnetic waves

is the distance between two consecutive wave crests or

troughs
is the number of wave cycles passing a point per second
is the height of the wave, representing its intensity or
energy

Electromagnetic waves exhibit both and

properties, as described by the dual nature of
light.
 Electromagnetic waves

All electromagnetic waves travel at the speed of light in a vacuum,

approximately 299,792,458 meters per second (c).

Wavelength ( ) and frequency ( ) are inversely related: where

is the speed of light.
147
 Electromagnetic waves

Example
i. A yellow light has a wavelength of 600 nanometers. What is the frequency in
Herts
ii. A certain FM radio station broadcasts at a frequency of 93.5 MHz what is the
wavelength expressed in meters?
 Electromagnetic waves

 Electromagnetic waves comprise various regions categorized

by their (or wavelengths), viz.
a) Radio waves
b) Microwaves
c) Infrared
d) Visible light
e) Ultraviolet
f) X-rays
149
g) Gamma rays
Electromagnetic waves

150
 Electromagnetic waves

The in the spectrum, ranging from kilohertz (kHz)

to gigahertz (GHz), are used for communication purposes, including
AM/FM radio, TV broadcasting, and radar.

Frequencies in the GHz range, lying and

on the spectrum, are used in applications such as microwave
ovens, satellite communication, and radar.
 Electromagnetic waves

Wavelengths just , ranging from micrometers

(µm) to millimeters (mm), are important for heat detection and
spectroscopy. Applications include remote controls, thermal imaging,
and spectroscopy.

The of the spectrum

, responsible for our sense of sight. Comprises the
familiar spectrum of colors (ROYGBIV).
 Electromagnetic waves

Higher-energy radiation , ranging from

, is responsible for sunburn and is
also used in sterilization and
fluorescence.

electromagnetic waves and used in

medical imaging, such as X-ray radiography and airport security.

The is produced in
nuclear
reactions and is used
in nuclear medicine, particularly for
cancer treatment.
 Electromagnetic waves

(1858-1947), the German

physicist, made significant contributions to
quantum mechanics
 In 1900, he proposed his

, laying the foundation for modern

quantum physics

 Planck introduced the idea that the energy of

electromagnetic radiation is quantized, meaning it can only take on
discrete values
 Electromagnetic waves

 He assumed that electromagnetic radiation is composed of discrete

packets of energy called “ ”
 Planck’s quantum hypothesis mathematically defines the energy of
each quantum as where: represents energy, is Planck’s
constant (6.626 x 10^-34 J·s), and denotes the frequency of
radiation the

(E) of a photon is to its (ν):

E = hν
 Electromagnetic waves

is to ( ):
where is the speed of light
 The of a quantum is to its
 This means that radiation with
carries

 As a result of this quantization,

156
only certain discrete
frequencies and energies are allowed for electromagnetic radiation
 Electromagnetic waves

i. A photon has a wavelength of 500 nm. Calculate the energy of the

photon in joules
ii. A photon has an energy of 3.2×10−19. Calculate the wavelength of the
photon in nanometers.
 Electromagnetic waves

 It revealed that in
 Planck’s constant (h) is a
extensively utilized in quantum physics
 Planck’s quantum theory
,
revolutionizing the comprehension of matter and energy at atomic
and subatomic
 This scales
theory finds in various fields, including
, 158
, and modern like
and
 Electromagnetic waves

 Atomic spectra, the

, have played a pivotal role in the

development of atomic theory and the understanding of the atom’s

structure
 The study of atomic spectra dates back to the early

when scientists like and

made significant observations about spectral lines

159
 Electromagnetic waves

 White light is a seamless of various and

, encompassing the entire visible spectrum
 Think of it as a mix of all rainbow colors
 Sunlight, for instance, when refracted through a prism, reveals
this spectrum, ranging from violet to red (ROYGBIV), which,
when combined in the right proportions, forms white light
 Electromagnetic waves

 Notably corresponds to a and

,
 Violet boasts the shortest wavelength and highest frequency, while
red possesses the and
 All other colors in between have their distinct wavelengths
and frequencies
 Thus, white light’s encompasses
, creating161
a vivid world of colors when interacting
with objects and surfaces
Electromagnetic waves

162
 Electromagnetic waves

 The is generated by
filled exciting a using a
with substantial or
energy, typically through the application of
 When this energy is applied, the gasamount of light, which is
lamp emits
then passed through a prism
 The light emitted from the hydrogen gas lamp exhibits a
-
 Consequently, the resulting
163 but
rather consists of individual lines of color, known as a line spectrum
 Electromagnetic waves

 In essence, a is a type of spectrum that only

specific,

164
 Electromagnetic waves

 Atomic spectra result

from of emitted or absorbed
in atoms and are
light by the atomic model,
 These spectra are
which
explained incorporates quantum
mechanics , exhibits the
, with its
 Bohr’s
among all model of the165hydrogen atom accurately predicted
this fundamental spectral pattern
elements
 Electromagnetic waves

 Electrons move in
quantized orbits
the nucleus around
 Electrons emit or absorb
energy when
transitioning
orbits between
 The angular momentum166 of an electron is quantized (n * h /
2π, where n is an integer)
 Electromagnetic waves

 Electrons undergo transitions between energy levels, leading to the

emission or absorption of photons
 The energy associated with these photons is quantized, expressed as

 When an electron within an atom electromagnetic

radiation, it to a
 In the Bohr model, the
(indicated by the value of ) with the

 The greater the value of n, the farther the orbit and the higher
the electron’s energy
 Electromagnetic waves

 To facilitate an electron’s movement from one energy level to

another, for instance, transitioning from n = 2 to n = 4, the electron
must absorb a specific amount of energy, precisely matching the
energy gap between the orbits
 This can be with the
appropriate wavelength, as the energy (E) of a photon is described
by
 The energy difference between two energy levels (e.g., n=2 and
n=1) can be calculated as follows: for
 Electromagnetic waves

=−​
where:
• En is the energy of the electron at energy level n (in joules),
• B is the Bohr constant, which is 2.178×10−18J,
• n is the principal quantum number (an integer: n=1,2,3,…n = 1, 2,
3,..).
Example
• Calculate the energy required to excite the hydrogen electron
from n=1 to level n=3. Also calculate the wavelength in nm of the
light that must be absorbed by a hydrogen atom in its ground
state to reach this excited state. B = 2.178 × 10–18 J , h = 6.626 ×
10–34 J∙s
 Electromagnetic waves

 An refers to a spectrum characterized by one or

more or on a
 These represent that

have been the by the

 This results in the or “ ” in the spectrum
Electromagnetic waves
 Electromagnetic waves

is characterized by

due to

 An emission spectrum is produced when an excited atom releases

energy in the form of photons of light
 This occurs when from
to

 The emitted light forms narrow, distinct and

, with each line corresponding to
a specific transition between two energy levels
 These lines are characteristic of the element and can be
used to
 Electromagnetic waves

 Lines are in the same places

 Lines are more closely spaced toward the blue/violet end of
the spectrum
 Electromagnetic waves

, ,

have
placing them towards the blue end of the spectrum
 Conversely, manifest to
as light, positioning them towards
, resulting the red
in a greater energy change, due to the
end
shorter wavelength

 The signify representfrom
In contrast, the
between lower energy orbits closer to the nucleus
 Electromagnetic waves

 Bohr’s model accurately predicts the position of the lines, which

corresponds to the energy of the electron orbits, for the hydrogen
atom
 The orbits in showing
some of
the jumps that give rise to absorption (jumps up) and emission
(jumps down)
Electromagnetic waves
 Electromagnetic waves

 Notice that the as you move

at the center of the atom
 This is why spectral
the than the
 Bohr’s model of the hydrogen atom and spectral
series revolutionized our understanding of atomic structure
 Modern quantum mechanics builds upon these foundations,
enabling
us to explore the behavior of electrons in all elements and
their myriad applications
 Electromagnetic waves
The energy-levels or orbits can also be represented as shown
below.
 Electromagnetic waves

 In each series, the

corresponds to the
 Electrons occupy specific energy levels (n = 1, 2, 3, etc.) or
become ionized, forming
 When an electron exceeds the n = infinity level, it
, becoming a free electron in a continuum
with energies surpassing the ionization energy
 Atoms of elements other than hydrogen and molecules
produce
complex spectra due to multiple electrons and different
energy transitions
 Electromagnetic waves

are sequences of

electron transitions between specific energy levels

 These spectra are essential in understanding the electronic structure

of atoms
 Key series include : - , , , , and
 Electromagnetic waves

 The Lyman series comprises spectral lines resulting from

 These transitions typically involve electrons moving from

higher energy levels to the n = 1 ground state
 Lyman lines are in of the
the electromagnetic
spectrum and
 The series begins from
the progresses to the
 The most well-known line in
the Lyman series is the
 Electromagnetic waves

 The Balmer series consists of spectral lines resulting from

 These transitions involve electrons moving from higher

energy levels to the n = 2 level
 Balmer lines fall in part of
the spectrum. the
 The series commences at and
the extends to the
 The is a significant line in the Balmer series and
is in the
Electromagnetic waves
 Electromagnetic waves

 The Paschen series encompasses spectral lines arising from

 Electrons move from higher energy levels to the n = 3 level in these

transitions
 Paschen lines are in the
 The series initiates from the
and terminates at the
 The is a significant line in the Paschen
series
 Electromagnetic waves

 The Brackett series includes spectral lines resulting from

 Electrons transition from higher energy levels to the n = 4 level in

this series
 Brackett lines are found in the and

 The series starts from the and concludes

at the
 The is a notable line in the Brackett series
 Electromagnetic waves

 The Pfund series consists of spectral lines arising from

 Electrons make transitions from higher energy levels to the n = 5

level in this series
 Pfund lines are in the and
 The series begins from and
the concludes at the
 The is a significant line in the Pfund
series
Electromagnetic waves
 Electromagnetic waves

i. Find the wavelength in Å of the line in Balmer series that is

associated with the drop of the electron from the fourth orbit. The
value of Rydberg constant is 109676 cm-1
ii. Find the wavelength in Å of the line in Paschen series that is
associated with drop of the electron from the fourth orbit.
iii. An electron in a hydrogen atom transitions from the n=6 energy
level to the n=4 energy level. Calculate the wavelength of the
emitted photon.
 Electromagnetic waves

 Spectral series are essential in

, offering vital insights into their electronic structure

 These series aid in and

 Mastery of the Lyman, Balmer, Paschen, Brackett, and Pfund series

is crucial for and holds a central

place in
 Electromagnetic waves

 The dual nature of electrons is a fundamental concept in

quantum mechanics, which

 This concept was first proposed by and

in later experimentally confirmed through various
experiments

 The wave-particle duality

principle
 Electromagnetic waves

 When electrons are treated as particles, they have discrete positions

and momenta, following classical mechanics.
 When electrons are treated as waves, their behavior is described by
wave functions and probabilities, as described by quantum
mechanics.

proposed that if light, which is a wave, can exhibit

particle-like properties (photons), then particles like electrons can
exhibit wave-like properties
 Electromagnetic waves

 De Broglie introduced the concept of the

, which is given by the formula: , where is the
wavelength, is Planck’s constant,
and is the momentum of the particle
 This wavelength is significant because it relates the
particle’s momentum to its wavelength, showing the dual nature of
particles

 In 1927, and performed

an experiment that provided strong evidence for the wave-like
nature of electrons
 Electromagnetic waves

 They directed a at a and

observed the
 The diffraction patterns resembled those produced by X-rays when

interacting with a crystal lattice

 This that electrons, like waves,

undergo diffraction, supporting the

Electromagnetic waves
 Electromagnetic waves

 Werner Heisenberg’s uncertainty principle is another fundamental

concept related to the dual nature of particles
 It

, where is the uncertainty in position, is the

uncertainty in momentum, and is the reduced Planck’s
constant
 This principle arises because particles have wave-like properties,
and accurately determining both position and momentum would
require infinite precision, which is not possible
 Electromagnetic waves

The wave-like nature of electrons allows for

, which can resolve structures

at the atomic and molecular levels
Electrons can be used to

through electron diffraction techniques

The dual nature of electrons is a foundational
concept in quantum mechanics, which governs the
 Electronic configuration

• Aufbau’s principle, Hund’s rule, Pauli’s exclusion principle, atomic orbitals and
electron configurations of elements.
 Electron configuration

• Describes the electron arrangement in atoms.

• Rules for electron configuration at ground state:
• Aufbau Principle - Each electron occupies the lowest available Orbital energy
of lowest energy first before occupying those of higher energy
• Pauli Exclusion Principle - No two electrons in an atom can have the same four
quantum numbers ie A maximum of 2 electrons may occupy a single atomic
orbital but only if they have opposite spins.
• Hund’s Rule - Hund’s rule states that electrons occupy orbitals of the same
energy in a way that makes the number of electrons with the same spin
direction as large as possible.
• This means that for degenerate orbitals (such as the three p, five d and
seven f orbitals) a single electron is placed in each orbital in the respective
sublevel with a + ½ spin (arrow pointing upwards) before pairing is done with a
- ½ spin
 Electron configuration

• To write electron configuration, first, determine how many electrons are in the
atom (given by the atomic number of the element from the Periodic Table).
• E.g. Atomic Number of Fe Iron is 26 (Z=26). Therefore it has 26 electrons.
• Fill each sublevel with electrons (as per the order in the diagram) until you
have used all the electrons in the atom

Order of filling electrons in

sublevels (Aufbau)
 Electron configuration

• Electron configuration for Fe: 1s2 2s2 2p6 3s2 3p6 4s2 3d 6
Note
• Superscripts represent the total number of electrons in a subshell
• Each of the 3 orbitals p orbitals per subshell holds 2 electrons with total
maximum being 6 electrons
• 4s subshell is filled before 3d and 5s before 4d
• Athough each of the 6 orbitals in 3d sublevel can hold 2 electrons. The
maximum number of electrons that can held in a d orbital is 10. However in the
case of Fe the subshells from 1s to 4s have already used up a total of 20
electrons, leaving only 6 electrons to be placed in the 3d sublevel
• The sum of the superscripts equals the atomic number of iron (26)
 Electron configuration

Orbital diagram for Fe:

• From the orbital diagram, Fe has 4 unpaired electrons and therefore it is

paramagnetic
• Remember Hund’s Rule. In this case the 21st -25th electrons are each placed in
the one of the 5 degenerate vacant orbitals in 3d sublevel. The 26th electron is
filled as pairing electron, with a -½ spin (arrow pointing downwards).
• Note: In forming cations, the electrons in 4s sublevel are lost first before
losing those from 3d.
• Example: Write the electronic configuration of Fe3+:
• Solution: Fe3+ has lost 3 electrons to make the total number of electrons to be
23.
Fe3+: 1s2 2s2 2p6 3s2 3p6 3d 5
• Note: 4s subshell does not appear because both electrons have been lost.
 Electron configuration

• Note: When filling the three degenerate 2p orbitals, the 5th, 6th
and 7th electrons are each placed into a vacant orbital, with + ½
spin (arrow facing up).
• The 8th and 9th electrons are then entered as pairing electrons (-
½ spins)….Hund’s Rule
 Electron configuration

• There are exceptions to the three rules for determining the electron
configuration.
• Some atoms with d and f orbitals do not follow the Aufbau.
• Chromium and copper are two example Chromium: Z = 24
• Configuration following Aufbau principle:
or
• Actual configuration: or
• Reason: Although d sublevel can hold up to 10 electrons, a half-filled sublevel
(3d5)is more stable than the Aufbau predicted configuration
• Copper: Z = 29
• Configuration following Aufbau principle:
• Actual configuration:
• Reason: A filled 3d sublevel (3d10) is more stable than 3d9
 Electron configuration

Exercise
1. For each of the following: K, Br, Element number 36, Ca, Sc, Sb, Ne, O2-, Ge,
Na+, Mn, Zn
(a) Write the ground state electronic configuration
(b) Draw the orbital diagram
(c) State and explain whether its paramagnetic or diamagnetic
(Hint: Obtained Atomic numbers from the Periodic Table)
2. Write the value of each of the four quantum numbers for the eighth and
fifteenth electrons in Ca and Ne
 Electron configuration

• Condensed (Noble gas) Electron Configuration and Partial Obital Diagrams

• Recall, the electron configuration for Na is:
Na: 1s2 2s2 2p6 3s1
• We can abbreviate the electron configuration by indicating the innermost
electrons with the symbol of the preceding noble gas.
• The preceding noble gas (noble gas that comes before Na on the Periodic
Table) is neon, Ne. We rewrite the electron configuration:
Na: [Ne] 3s1
• [Ne] represents the electron configuration of neon.
 Electron configuration

• Table 4: Condensed electron configurations

• (Use periodic Table to determine the noble gas preceding each element)

Element Atomic
Symbol No Full Electron Condensed
Configuration Configuration

Li 3 1s22s1 [He]2s1
Na 11 1s22s22p63s1 [Ne]3s1
K 19 1s22s22p63s23p64s1 [Ar]4s1
1s22s22p63s23p64s23d104
Rb 37 [Kr]5s1
s65s1
• Core (inner) electrons: electrons in
[Noble Gas].
• Valence electrons: electrons outside of
[Noble Gas] for the elements in group
IA
 Electron configuration

• Partial Condensed Electron Configuration and Partial Obital

Diagrams Orbital Diagrams

• Note: When filling the three degenerate 2p orbitals, the 5th, 6th and 7th
electrons are each placed into a vacant orbital, with + ½ spin (arrow facing up) .
The 8th and 9th electrons are then entered as pairing electrons (-½ spins) ….
Hund’s Rule
 Electron configuration

• Partial Condensed Electron Configuration and Partial Obital

Diagrams Orbital Diagrams
 Physical Chemistry
Equilibrium in physical processes
• The equilibrium involving physical processes are referred to as physical
equilibrium and involve change in state e.g.

a) Solid-Liquid equilibrium
- Melting of a crystalline solid attains equilibrium under 1 atmospheric pressure at
a certain temperature, wherein the temperature is termed as the melting or
freezing point of that solid.
- On application of constant heat to the equilibrium mixture, solid gets converted to
liquid. But if the mixture is kept in an insulated thermos flask, a dynamic
equilibrium, (i.e. both the states would be constant) would be maintained.
 Physical Chemistry
a) Solid-Liquid equilibrium
- Example: Consider ice and water at 273 K (melting point of ice), taken in a
perfectly insulated thermos flask. The temperature as well as the masses of ice
and water remains constant. Since there is no change in mass of ice and water, the
number of molecules going from ice into water, is equal to the number of
molecules of water going into ice.
- Rate of melting = Rate of freezing
b) Liquid – Gas equilibrium
- Evaporation of water in an evacuated vessel gives vapour formation with a
gradual decrease in the water level.
- Equilibrium is attained wherein a constant level is observed after a certain time.
This is dynamic in nature. In beginning, rate of evaporation is more and hence
water vapour concentration increases, which in turn condenses back into the
liquid. As the concentration of water vapours increases, rate of condensation also
increases. At equilibrium, rate of evaporation is equal to rate of condensation.
- Rate of evaporation = Rate of condensation.
 Physical Chemistry
c) Solid – Vapour equilibrium
- Sublimation occurs when solid turns into vapour phase.
- Example: A piece of solid iodine kept in a closed vessel, fills with violet vapour
in sometime. Intensity of colour goes on increasing with time and attains a
constant violet shade which indicates the equilibrium position. This point gives
the sublimation and condensation processes in balance.
- Represented as: I2 (solid) I2 (vapour)
 Physical Chemistry
Equilibrium involving dissolution of Solids or Gases in Liquids
Solids in Liquids
• A saturated solution is the one in which no more solute can be dissolved in a
given amount of solvent. The added solute poses as a precipitate.
• The amount of solute required to prepare a saturated solution in a given quantity
of solvent is known as solubility of the solute at a particular temperature.
• This state is dynamic equilibrium
Gases in Liquids
• Certain liquids dissolve gases at a particular temperature to a certain extent. This
suggests that a state of equilibrium exists between molecules in the gaseous state
and the molecules dissolved in the liquid. Example: Carbon dioxide dissolved in
soda water.
• The following equilibrium exists
CO2(g) CO2(solution)
 Physical Chemistry
General characteristics of physical equilibria
(a) The system should be closed wherein no exchange of matter takes place with the
surroundings.
(b) Irrespective of the side from which a process starts, a stable dynamic condition
exists.
(c) The constant concentration keeps the other measurable properties of the system
constant.
(d) On reaching the equilibrium at a particular temperature, the concentration of the
reacting species reaches a constant value.
(e) The extent of the reaction before reaching equilibrium is given by the magnitude
of concentration related expressions.
 Physical Chemistry
Chemical equilibrium
• It is the state at which the rate of forward reaction becomes equal to the rate of
backward reaction.
• Initially the rate of forward reaction is greater than the rate of backward reaction.
• However, during the course of reaction, the concentration of reactants decreases
and the concentration of products increases.
• Since the rate of a reaction is directly proportional to the concentration, the rate of
forward reaction decreases with time, whereas the rate of backward reaction
increases.
• At certain stage, both the rates become equal thus there will be no change in the
concentrations of both reactants and products with time. This state is called as
equilibrium state.
• NOTE: A reversible reaction is said to be in the equilibrium state when the forward
and backward reaction occur simultaneously at the same rate in a closed system and
the concentrations of reactants and products do not change with time.
 Physical Chemistry
The state of chemical equilibrium

Rate of forward
reaction

Rate of backward
reaction
Reaction co-ordinate
 Physical Chemistry
Irreversible and Reversible reactions
a) Irreversible reaction
• A reaction that occurs only in one direction is called an irreversible reaction i.e.,
only the reactants are converted to products and the conversion of products to
reactants is not possible.
• Single headed arrow ( ) is used to indicate irreversible reactions e.g.
1) The combustion of methane is an irreversible reaction since it is not possible to
convert the products (carbon dioxide and water) back to the reactants (methane
and oxygen).

2) The decomposition of potassium chlorate is also an irreversible reaction. It is not

possible to prepare potassium chlorate directly from KCl and O 2.
 Physical Chemistry
b) Reversible reaction
• Reactions which proceed in both the directions and do not reach to completion
• Forward reaction proceed from left to right and reverse or backward reaction
proceed in the opposite from right to left.
• In a reversible reaction, the reactants are converted into products and the products
can also be converted back to the reactants.
• The half-headed arrows ( ) are used to indicate the reversible reactions e.g.

• The chemical equilibrium is possible in reversible reactions only.

 Physical Chemistry
b) Reversible reaction
 Physical Chemistry
Characteristics of chemical equilibrium
- At equilibrium state, the rates of forward and backward reactions are equal.
- The observable properties such as pressure, concentration, color, density, viscosity etc., of
the system remain unchanged with time.
- The chemical equilibrium is a dynamic equilibrium, because both the forward and
backward reactions continue to occur even though it appears static externally. The
concentrations of reactants and products do not change with time but their inter conversion
continue to occur.
- The chemical equilibrium can be reached by starting the reaction either from the reactants
side or from the products side.
- Both pressure and concentration affect the state of equilibrium but do not affect the
equilibrium constant.
- Temperature can affect both the state of equilibrium as well as the equilibrium constant.
- A positive catalyst can increase the rates of both forward and backward reactions and thus
helping the system to attain the equilibrium faster. But it does not affect the state of
equilibrium and the equilibrium constant.
 Physical Chemistry
Types of chemical equilibria
• The chemical equilibria are classified into two types:
- Homogeneous equilibrium
- Heterogeneous equilibrium.
a) Homogeneous equilibrium
• A chemical equilibrium in which all the substances (reactants and products) at
equilibrium are in the same phase.

b) Heterogeneous equilibrium
• A chemical equilibrium in which more than one phase is present i.e. if all the
substances at equilibrium are not in the same phase.
 Physical Chemistry
Law of mass action
• This law was proposed by Guld berg and Wage.
• It states that “The rate of a reaction at an instant of time is proportional to the
product of active masses of the reactants at that instant of time under given
conditions.”
• The active masses for different substances and systems can be expressed as
follows:
i) For dilute solutions, the molar concentrations are taken as active masses.
ii) For gases at low pressures, the partial pressures are taken as active masses.
However, the molar concentrations can also be taken as active masses.
iii) The active masses of pure solids and pure liquids are taken as unity since
their active masses (or concentrations) are independent of their quantities
taken.
 Physical Chemistry
Law of mass action
• For the reaction:
N2(g) + 3H2(g) 2NH3(g)
• The rate of the reaction at an instant of time can be expressed as:
r ∝ [N2] [H2]3 or r ∝ pN2.pH23
• Where:
- [N2] and [H2] are the molar concentrations of gases.
- pN2 and pH2 are the partial pressures of gases.
 Physical Chemistry
Equilibrium constant, Kc (in terms of molar concentration)
• Consider the following reaction at equilibrium;

• By applying law of mass action,

• The rate of forward reaction can be written as;
Vf ∝ [A]a[B]b
Vf = kf [A]a[B]b
• The rate of backward reaction can be written as;
Vb ∝ [C]c[D]d
Vb = kb [C]c[D]d
 Physical Chemistry
Equilibrium constant, Kc (in terms of molar concentration)
• Where
- [A], [B], [C] and [D] are the equilibrium concentrations of A, B, C and D
respectively.
- a, b, c & d represent the stoichiometric coefficients of A, B, C & D
respectively.
- Kf and Kb are the rate constants of forward and backward reactions
respectively.
- However, at equilibrium, rate of forward reaction = rate of backward
reaction i.e. Vf = Vb

Where
 Physical Chemistry
• Kc is called as equilibrium constant expressed in terms of molar concentrations.
• It is the ratio of products of equilibrium concentrations of products to the product
of equilibrium concentrations of reactants.
• In general, it can be represented as:

• Units of Kc: Most of the times the Kc is expressed without units. However the
units of Kc can be given as (mol. L-1)Δn.
• Where Δn = (c+d) - (a+b) = (total no. of moles of products) - (total no. of moles
of reactants).
• Note: These no. of moles are the stoichiometric coefficients in the balanced
chemical equation for the equilibrium. While counting this number, the no. of
moles of solids and liquids are not taken into consideration.
 Physical Chemistry
Factors affecting the equilibrium constant
- There is no effect of pressure, concentration and catalyst on the value of
equilibrium constant.
- However, the equilibrium constant depends on the temperature.
• Usually, in exothermic reactions, increase in temperature decreases the
equilibrium constant, Kc.
• Whereas, in endothermic reactions, increase in temperature increases the
Kc value.
 Physical Chemistry
Equilibrium constant, Kp (in terms of partial pressures)
• Kp is the equilibrium constant in terms of partial pressures.
• Let A, B, C and D are gases in the following reaction.

• Then for the above reaction, the Kp can be written as:

• Where PA, PB, PC and PD are the partial pressures of A, B, C and D at equilibrium.
 Physical Chemistry
Relationship between Kc and Kp
• From the ideal gas equation:

• Where [M] = molar concentration.

• Now we can write: PA = [A]RT, PB = [B]RT, PC = [C]RT & PD = [D]RT

• Where Δng = (no. of moles of gaseous products) - (no. of moles of gaseous

reactants).
• Note: These no. of moles are the stoichiometric coefficients of
only gaseous reactants and products in the balanced.
 Physical Chemistry
Examples
1) A mixture of 5.00 × 10-3 mol of H2 and 1.00 × 10-2 mol of I2 are placed in a 5.00 L
container at 448 ºC and allowed to come to equilibrium. Analysis of the equilibrium
mixture shows that concentration of HI is 1.87 × 10-3 M. Calculate Kc at 448 ºC for the
reaction. The stoichiometric equation of the reaction is shown below.
H2(g) + I2(g) 2HI(g)
Equilibrium expression is Mole ratio for H2, I2 and HI is 1:1:2

Kc 
 HI 
2
No of moles of H consumed = (1.87 × 10-3M)/2 = 0.935 ×
H 2 I 2  10-3 molH2/L

3 No of moles of I consumed = (1.87 × 10-3M)/2 =

5.0 x10 mol
H 2initial  1.00 x10  3 M 0.935 × 10-3 molH2/L
5.00 L
Final concentrations of H2 and I2
1.00 x10  2 mol
I 2   2.00 x10  3 M H2 = (1.00 × 10-3 M) – (0.935 × 10-3 M) = 0.065 × 10-3 M
5.00 L I2 = (2.00 × 10-3 M) – (0.935 × 10-3 M) = 1.065 × 10-
Change in concentration of HI 3
M 3
1.87 × 10-3 M - 0 = +1.87 × 10-3 M (1.87 x10 )
Kc  50.5
Using the equation
 
0.065 x10  3 1.065 x10  3
 Physical Chemistry
2) At 444°C, 0.30 mole of H2 and 0.30 mole of I2 were taken in a one litre flask.
After some time the equilibrium H2(g) + I2(g) 2HI(g) was established
and it was found that the concentration of I2 decreased to 0.06 mol L–1. Calculate
the value of Kc for the reaction at this temperature.

3) **See other examples in the shared documents**

 Physical Chemistry
Le-Chateliers principle
• It states that when a system in equilibrium is disturbed by a change in
concentration, pressure or temperature, a 'net' change occurs in it in a direction
that tends to decrease the disturbing factor.
 Physical Chemistry
The principle can be applied to various situations
Change in concentration
• Consider the state of equilibrium for the formation of ammonia from nitrogen and
hydrogen.
• N2(g) + 3H2(g) 2NH3(g), ΔH = –92.4 kJ/mol
• The concentration of nitrogen, hydrogen and ammonia become constant at the
point of equilibrium.
• Now if any amount of reactants or ammonia is added or removed their
concentration will change and the equilibrium will get disturbed.
(i) Increase concentration of reactant - When the concentration of either
nitrogen or hydrogen is increased; a net forward reaction will take place
which consumes the added reactant.
(ii) Increase in the concentration of any product - If the concentration of
product ammonia is increased, a net backward reaction would take place to
utilize the added ammonia.
 Physical Chemistry
Change in Pressure
• Change in pressure affects equilibrium involving gaseous phase either in a
homogeneous or heterogeneous system. Le Chatelier principle for systems
involving gases can be studied as follows:
(i) When the number of moles of products is more than the total number of moles
of reactants e.g. N2O4(g) 2NO2(g) Increase in total pressure keeping the
temperature constant, will cause a decrease in volume. This means that the
number of moles per unit volume will increase. A net change will take place in
the equilibrium in the direction where the number of moles decrease i.e.
backward direction.
(ii) When the number of moles of products is less than reactants as in the following
case N2(g) + 3H2(g) 2NH3(g). According to Le Chatelier's principle
increase in total pressure will bring a net change to the equilibrium in the
direction where the total number of moles is decreasing i.e. to the product side
as Δng = 2. Decrease in total pressure will bring the net change to equilibrium
in the direction where the total number of moles is increasing i.e. backward
direction.
 Physical Chemistry
(iii) When there is no change in the total number of moles of reactant and product as
in the following state of equilibrium. H2(g) + I2(g) 2HI There is no net change
in equilibrium state when pressure is changed.
Change of Temperature
According to Le Chatelier prinicple when the temperature is changed (increased or
decreased) the equilibrium system reacts to nullify the change in heat content.
However, the net change in equilibrium is directed by the exothermic or endothermic
nature of reaction.
(i) Exothermic equilibrium - For the following system of equilibrium of
exothermic nature: N2(g) + 3H2(g) 2NH3(g); ΔH = – 92.4 kJ/mol according to
Le Chatelier principle increase in temperature brings a net change in the
equilibrium state in that direction where this extra heat is consumed. The net
change is in the backward direction and some ammonia will decompose
producing nitrogen and hydrogen. Similarly if the temperature is decreased the
equilibrium shifts to the forward direction.
 Physical Chemistry
Change of Temperature
iii. Endothermic equilibrium - N2(g) + O2(g) 2NO(g); ΔH = + 180.7 kJ/mol.
If the temperature is increased the added heat will be absorbed by the reactant
and the net change takes place to the equilibrium in the forward direction. If the
temperature in decreased it will bring a 'net' change to equilibrium in the
backward direction i.e. direction in which it is exothermic.
iv. Addition of a catalyst - does not affect the equilibrium but helps to achieve the
equilibrium faster.
 Physical Chemistry
Applications of Le Chatelier’s principle
1. Physical equilibria
a) Melting of ice – Ice Water; ΔH = + 6 kJ/mol–1. The change of ice to
water is endothermic process. According to Le Chatelier principle if the
temperature is increased the net change will take place in the forward direction
some ice will melt into water. When the pressure is increased on the equilibrium
system, then the volume should decrease; Chemical Dynamics according to Le
Chatelier principle the net change in equilibrium takes place in the forward
direction and ice melts. Therefore, ice melts on increasing the pressure.
b) Vaporization of Water – Water(l) Water vapour; ΔH = + ve. This process
occurs with a large increase in volume since Δng = 1 – 0 = + 1, and it occurs
with absorption of heat. Increasing the temperature results in more vapour
formation (endothermic process). Since Δng = + 1, increase in pressure results in
a net change in equilibrium in the backward direction as the volume of water
vapours is more than that of liquid water for a given mass of water.
 Physical Chemistry
1. Physical equilibria
c) Solubility Equilibrium - The equilibrium is Solute (s) Solute
(solution). The process of dissolution can be endothermic or exothermic. In case
of solutes like KCl, KNO3 and NH4Cl, ΔH is positive (endothermic) and more
solute will dissolve on heating. Thus, the solubility increases with rise in
temperature. In case of solutes like KOH and NaOH the ΔH is negative
(exothermic) and their solubility decreases on heating.
 Physical Chemistry
2. Chemical Equilibra
a) Favourable conditions for synthesis of Ammonia - This reaction is of great
industrial importance. During the synthesis of ammonia such conditions are
maintained which favour the ‘net’ forward reaction namely low temperature and
high pressure. Addition of catalyst makes the reaction occur fast. Besides,
nitrogen and hydrogen gases are continuously fed into the reaction chamber and
ammonia is continuously removed. All this keeps the system under stress and
equilibrium is never permitted to be attained, so that the synthesis of ammonia
continues to occur.
b) Formation of SO3 - The reaction 2SO2(g) + O2(g) 2SO3(g); ΔH = –ve is
extothermic and Δng = 2 – 3 = – 1. Formation of SO3 will be favoured by high
pressure and low temperature in the presence of a catalyst.
c) Formation of NO - The reaction N2(g) + O2(g) 2NO(g); ΔH = +ve is
endothermic and Δng = 2 – 2 = 0. The reaction is not affected by pressure
changes and is favoured at high temperature. Presence of a suitable catalyst
would be helpful.
 End
Thank
You IVER
TS I

Dedan Kimathi
University of
Technology