Identification

IDENTIFICATION
• Recognition of an individual based on certain
physical characters which are unique to each
individual.

* Complete identity
Absolute fixation of the individuality of a
person

* Partial identity
Ascertainment of some facts [ ex: race,
sex, age, stature - others remain unknown ]
 WHY TO ESTABLISH IDENTITY ?

• IN THE LIVING
I. CIVIL: Insurance claim
Pension claim
Inheritance claim
Marriage
Disputed Sex
Missing Persons
Beauty contest
• II. CRIMINAL :- Absconding Criminals
- Absconding Soldiers
- Persons accused of
Assault, Murder, Rape etc
-Impersonation
-Interchange of new born
babies in maternity hospitals
 IN THE DEAD
• Medical man is mainly concerned with
identity of dead

Body may be: Fresh,

Putrefied,
Dismembered,
Skeletal remains or
Dead Infants
 IDENTITY OF DEAD IS REQUIRED IN

• Fire, Explosion, Travel accidents, other

mishaps
• Body found on road, Fields, Railway
compartment, or in water
• Decomposed & dismembered bodies,
skeletal remains
• Mass disasters
 CORPUS DELICTI
• ‘ Body of offence’

• Accurate identification is necessary in

Murder trial

Otherwise Unclaimed bodies, Portions of

dead body, or Bones are produced to
support a false charge
• Establishment of identity of a person
- Police
• Dead / fragmentary & skeletal remains
-Anthropologist
-Pathologist
-Forensic expert
-Dentist
-Trace evidence expert
ENTIRE BODY OF EVIDENCE

It includes:
1] POSITIVE IDENTIFICATION OF THE BODY
2] PROOF OF ITS DEATH BY THE CRIMINAL
ACT OF THE ACCUSED
• At least 2 identification marks should be
noted by the doctor in all medico-legal
cases
Identification of living persons

Identification
parade
 Identification parade

 Hand writing, Gait, Speech

 Photography, facial description
 Fingerprints, Footprints
 DNA fingerprinting
Identification of dead bodies
Primary characteristics:
• Age
• Sex
• Stature
Secondary characteristics:
• Appearance, External peculiarities
• Complexion, Hair, Scar, Tattoos
• Occupational stigmata
• Personal (pocket contents, clothes, ornaments
etc)
• Race, Religion, Nationality
Identification of dead bodies Contd…
Comparative data/ techniques:
• Dental patterns/ restorations
• Fingerprints, Footprints
• Superimposition
• Anthropometry
• Trace evidence comparisons
 Race

Clothing: Traditional dressing

Complexion: Negroes (Black),

Indians (Brown),
Europeans (fair)
• Iris: Indians (dark / brown),
Europeans (Blue / grey)

• Hair:
Negroes – wooly, short, curly
Europeans – fair, light brown / reddish
Mongolians– dark, wavy, straight
 Cephalic index

= Max. transverse breadth of skull x 100

Max. anterior-posterior length of skull
Types of Cephalic index Race
skull
Dolico- 70-74.9 Negroes,
Cephalic Aryans,
( long headed) Aborigines
Mesati- 75-79.9 Europeans &
Cephalic Chinese
(medium
headed)
Brachy- 80-84.9 Mongolians
Cephalic
(round headed)
• Skull of Indian – Caucasian with a few
Negroid characters

• Other indices -Height index, nasal index

• Brachial index = Length of radius x 100
Length of humerus

Europeans – 74.5
Negroes – 78.5

• Crural index = Length of tibia x 100

Length of femur

Europeans – 83.3
Negroes – 86.2
• Humero-Femoral index = Length of humerus x 100
Length of femur

Europeans – 69.0
Negroes – 72.4
 RELIGION
• Hindu : male- religious marks, sacred
thread, necklace
female – thali, vermillion, saree
nose ring aperture,
• Muslim : male- circumcised, callosities
female- septal nasal aperture,
multiple ear ring apertures
 SEX
Determination of sex is by

• Physical morphology
• Bones
• Gonadal biopsy
• Sex chromatin study by microscopy
 Skeleton
Accuracy of determining sex - Krogman’s

• Entire skeleton -100%

• Pelvis + skull -98%
• Pelvis alone -95%
• Skull alone -90%
• Long bones alone -80%
• Sex determination by morphological
differences

• Metric analyses

• Most differences apparent after puberty

 Chromosomal study
• Normal person -46 chromosomes
• Male 44+XY
• Female 44+XX

• Sex can be determined from hair bulb, dental

pulp, bone marrow & amniotic fluid
 Sex chromatin (nuclear sexing)
• Female (chromatin positive)
Barr body (buccal mucosa ) -20 to 80%
Davidson body (neutrophils) –up to 6%

• Male (chromatin negative)

Barr body -0 to 4%
Davidson body -Absent
• Plano-convex mass
situated inside the
nucleus near the
nuclear wall
• Buccal cells or vaginal
wall cells
• H & E stain or Fuelgen
stain
• Bertram and Barr
• Davidson body: drum
stick appearance
• Spherical compact
mass extending from
one lobe of the
nucleus
• 1.5 microns in
diameter
• H & E stain
 Intersex
• Intermingling of sexual characters of either
sex (physical form, reproductive organs &
sexual behaviour)

• Gonadal agenesis
• Gonadal dysgenesis
• True hermophroditism
• Pseudo hermophroditism
 Gonadal dysgenesis

• Testes or ovaries fail to develop at puberty

(A) Klinefelter’s syndrome
Chromosomal pattern- 47XXY
Male but nuclear sexing is female
Testicular atrophy with hyalinization of
seminiferous tubules
Sterility, gynaecomastia, MR
 (B) Turner’s syndrome
Anatomically female but nuclear sexing is
male
• Chromosomal pattern- 45XO
• Ovaries do not contain primordial follicles
• Short stature, primary amenorrhea &
congenital malformations
 True hermophroditism
• Presence of both testis & ovaries with
external genitalia of both sexes

• Sex chromatin may be either male or female

 Pseudo-hermophroditism
• Male Pseudo-hermophroditism
Nuclear sex-male,
Sex organs & characteristics –female

• Female Pseudo-hermophroditism
Nuclear sex –female
Sex organs & characteristics -male
 Concealed Sex

• Criminals may conceal their sex to avoid

detection

• Can be detected by physical examination

 MEDICO LEGAL SIGNIFICANCE

• Exercise certain civil rights

• Legitimacy, divorce, paternity
• Marriage
Age
 Age – less than 25 yrs
• Determined from

General physical development

Secondary sex characteristics
Teeth
Ossification of bones
 General Physical Examination
 Height and weight
 Development of body features :
Female Male
Pubic hair 13 – 14 yrs 13 – 15 yrs
Axillary hair 14 – 15 yrs 14 – 16 yrs
Beard & moustaches - 15 – 17 yrs

Breast development 12 – 14 yrs Nil

Change of voice - 15 – 17 yrs

Greying - scalp hair 40 yrs 40 yrs
Greying - beard & - 40 yrs
moustache
Greying - pubic hair 55 yrs 55 yrs
 Dental examination
• Temporary & permanent teeth.

• Successional permanent teeth:

Permanent incisors, canine & pre-molars.

• Super-added teeth:
All permanent molars.

• Spacing of the jaw.

 Teeth
• Useful for age estimation by
1. State of development
2. Secondary changes
 Temporary teeth
• 20 in number
• Smaller, Lighter,
Narrow
• Anterior teeth are
vertical
• China white in
colour
 Permanent teeth
• 32 in number
• Heavier, Stronger, Broader
• Ivory white in colour
• Anterior teeth are inclined
• Mixed dentition
Presence of both temporary &
permanent teeth ( b/n 6 -12 yrs)
• Successional teeth- erupt in place of
deciduous teeth
• Superadded teeth – do not have deciduous
predecessors
 Federation Dentaire Internationale
(FDI) formula
Marking Permanent teeth

Right Left

18 17 16 15 14 13 12 11 21 22 23 24 25 26 27 28

48 47 46 45 44 43 42 41 31 32 33 34 35 36 37 38
Federation Dentale Internationale
(FDI) formula
Marking Temporary teeth

Right Left

55 54 53 52 51 61 62 63 64 65

85 84 83 82 81 71 72 73 74 75
Age in Adults > 25 yrs
 GUSTAFSON’S METHOD

• age estimation of adult over 25yrs

• (A P S R T C)
1. Attrition
2. Periodontosis
3. Secondary dentin
4. Cementum apposition
5. Root resorption
6. Transparency of the root- most reliable
 Attrition
• Due to wear and tear from mastication

• First involving the enamel, dentin, and lastly

pulp
 Periodontosis
• Regression of the gums and periodontal tissues

• Exposure of the necks and the adjacent parts of

the root

• Teeth become loose and fall off

• Poor hygiene
 Secondary dentin
• Develop within the pulp cavity and decrease
the size

• Deposited at the pulp chamber and extends

downwards to the apex

• Completely fills the pulp cavity

 Cementum apposition
• Increases in thickness due to changes in the
tooth position

• It is deposited continuously throughout life

• They appear as cross striations on the

enamel of the tooth
 Root resorption
• Involves both cementum and dentin

• Absorption of the root starts first in the apex

and extends upwards

• Age related and may be due to pathological

process
 Transparency of the root
• Not seen until 30 years of age
• The canals in the dentin are wide at the
beginning
• Filled with mineral as age advances
• Dentin becomes more visible
• Most reliable criteria in gustafson’s method
• A n + Pn+ Sn+ Rn + Cn + Tn = points(M) ( age in
years )

n
A
g
e
s

Points m
 Boyde’s method:
• Cross striations develop in the enamel of the
teeth.

• They represent the daily incremental lines.

• The age can be calculated by counting these
incremental lines

• Used in a dead infant.

 Stack’s method
• Age of the infants from the weight and
height of the infant

• Used in temporary as well as the permanent

teeth.
 Forensic aspects of teeth
• Determination of - Age, sex & race.
- Occupation.
- Habits.

• Social status from teeth.

• Identification – dentures, dental fillings.

• Dislocation of teeth in assault - Grievous hurt
(s. 320 IPC).

• Evidentiary material – Bite marks in sexual

assaults
– DNA analysis in
disasters
 Age in old age
• Greying of hair: Scalp hair – after 40 yrs
Pubic hair – 50 to 60 yrs

• Arcus senilis – After 50 yrs.

• Changes in surface of symphysis pubis.

• Closure of skull sutures.

• Fusion of Xiphoid process to body of sternum
– 40-45 yrs
• Fusion of manubrium to body of sternum –
Above 50 yrs

• Ossification of hyoid & thyroid cartilage – 45

– 50 yrs
 Ossification of bones
• Process of appearance & union of ossification
centres has a sequence & time period

• Ageing of bones is more accurate with respect

to the appearance of centres than union

• Multiple criteria of skeletal age should be

employed
 Medico-legal importance of age

• 5yrs – liable for punishment for any unlawful

act under Indian Railways Act

• < 7yrs - Criminally not responsible (Sec 82 IPC)

• 7-12yrs – Presumed to be capable of committing

an offence (Sec 83 IPC)

• <12yrs – cannot give valid consent for

general physical examination
• 10yrs - kidnapping (Sec 369IPC)

• <14 yrs – cannot be employed to work in any

factory
• >15yrs – allowed to work in a factory with
a fitness certificate
• 18yrs – attainment of majority
- age above which a female can give valid consent for
sexual intercourse
- give consent for surgery
- Female can marry legally
- juvenile upto 18yrs
- consent for MTP
- consent for organ transplantation
- can make a valid will
- can vote
- legally can get driving licence
• 21 years: Age of marriage for boys
Age of majority-court of wards

• 25 yrs : Contest for MLA , MLC

• 35 yrs : President post
• 58 yrs : Retirement from Govt. service
• 60 yrs : Senior citizen
 STATURE
• Primary characteristic for identification .

• Stature increases progressively & becomes

maximum at the age between 21 – 25 years.

• Stature is shortened by 2.5 cms/25yrs, due to

thinning of the intervertebral discs & tone
of muscles
• Maximum in the morning

• less by 1.5 – 2 cms in the evening due to

reduction of the elasticity
of intervertebral discs.
 Approximate stature
• The distance between the tips of 2 middle fingers of
the out streched hands

• Length from the vertex to pubic symphysis is roughly

half the stature.

• Its equal to twice the length from pubic symphysis to

heel.

• The length of the entire skeleton + 2.5 cms to 4 cms for

the thickness of the soft tissues – gives stature.
 Stature from bones
• Regression equations
 Karl Pearson’s formula (1899)
Stature = 81.306 + 1.880 (Length of femur)
 Trotter & Glesser’s formulae (1952, 1958)

• Multiplication factors
 Pan (1924) – Bengal, Bihar, Orissa.
 Nat (1931) – Utter Pradesh.
 Siddiqui & Shah (1944) – Punjab.
Thomas and Mehta – Mysore
Hepburn’s osteometric board
FINGER PRINTS
 Fingerprint / Dactylography /
Dematoglyphics
• Dactylography
Is the process of taking impressions of the pulp of
fingers and thumbs on an unglazed white paper
and examining them with a magnifying lens.

• Sir William J Herschel (1877)

Sir Francis Galton (1892)
Sir Edward Henry (1901)

Henry-Galton system of identification

 Principle
• Fingers covered with characteristic ridges –
permanent & unique

• Different even in twins

• Locard’s principle of exchange

When two objects come in contact with each
other, there will be always a mutual
transference of material from each other.
 Classification
4 basic fingerprint patterns:
Loop – 65 %
Whorl – 25 %
Arch – 7 %
Composite (Mixed) – 3 %

• Arches : Plain / tented arches.

• Loops : Radial or ulnar (depending on the side of

the hand the tail points towards).

• Whorls: Plain / double loop / central pocket loop

whorls.
Arches
Loops
Whorl & Mixed (Composite)
 Points for comparison
• Presence of center [core] and triangle [delta] in the
print.

• Presence of pores [poroscopy].

• Width of papillary ridges and valleys, direction of

the lines, and the angular value of the bifurcations
[ridgeology / edgeoscopy].

16 -20 points of fine comparison are

accepted as proof of identity
Core, delta, ridge counting
Individual ridge characteristics
• Latent print:
Hidden or invisible,
Means any chance or accidental impression on a
surface, regardless of whether it is visible or
invisible at the time of deposition.

• Plastic print:
A finger or palm impression deposited in a
material that retains the shape of the ridge
detail.
Eg: Soft materials like wax, soap, clay, etc.
 Recording of fingerprints
• Plain impression: Gentle pressing of inked surface of
tip of finger / thumb on the paper.
• Rolled impression: Rolling the inked finger / thumb
from side to side.

• In criminals:
Impressions of all the digits of both the hands are
taken & preserved by police for future identification.

• In dead body:
Dried finger tips (soaked in an alkaline solution);
If skin peeled off (dermis or peeled-off skin hardened
by formalin).
 Latent Prints
• Powdering & Lifting.
• Magnetic Brushes & Powders.
• Cellulose Lifting Tape.
• Chemical Methods.
• Ultra – Violet Lamps.
• Digital Scanners.
• Electronography
Automated Fingerprint Identification
System (AFIS)
Removal / alteration of fingerprints
• Temporary:
Coeliac disease, eczema, scleroderma, inflicting
injuries / burns to fingers

• Permanent:
Leprosy, electrical injury, after exposure to
radiation

• Rickets & acromegaly:

Pattern is not altered, but distances between
the ridges can be changed
 Medico – legal Importance
• Impressions left at a scene of crime, Eg: on
weapons, furnitures, doors, utensils, clothes
etc, establish the identity of the criminal.

• Identification suicides, deserters,persons

with loss of memory ,dead, unconscious &
decomposing bodies.

• Surest data of identification & commonly

used for both civil & criminal cases.
• Identification in cases of accidental exchange
of newborn infants in hospitals.

• Cheques, bank notes & other legal

documents can bear a fingerprint.

• To maintain identity records

Other methods similar to fingerprints
• Poroscopy: Study of pores of sweat glands in
the papillary ridges of
epidermis.

• Foot prints: Study of impressions of foot.

• Cheiloscopy: Study of lip prints.

• Rugoscopy: Study of palatal rugae.

 Poroscopy
• Study of pores of sweat glands in the
papillary ridges of epidermis.
• First explored and used by Dr Edmond Locard
• Pores are present all over the body, but
palm, Palmar aspects, sole, solar aspects
have a very high concentration of pores
• Their shape, size , their interdistance from
each other on a ridge vary.
 Footprints
• Footprints may be left by the offender at the
scene of crime
• Whether bare foot or with shoes can be
individualistic
• In case of bare foot impression, the ridges or
creases of the particular areas of the soles
when available are compared and studied
• In case of shoes primary markings and
secondary markings on the soles of the shoes
are compared.
• Primary markings tell about the make of the
shoes
• Secondary markings are the changes seen the
shoe soles due to use, which are
individualistic
 Recording and preservation of
foot prints
• Photographed from the scene of crime
• Cast preparation when the prints have depth
• Lifting of the footprints with the help of
adhesive cellophane paper.
Uses of foot prints
Identification
Record of identification in new born
 Lip prints
• Also known as cheiloscopy
• Lip prints on wine bottles, glasses and love
letters have helped in identification.
• Suzuki and Tsuchihashi termed lip prints
containing grooves as figura linearum
rubrorum and classified into following types
 Scars

• A scar is a fibrous tissue covered by

epithelium, devoid of hair follicles, sweat
glands, or pigment – which is produced from
the healing of a wound.

• Injury to the dermis produces a scar.

• These scars are permanent.

Identification by scar
Age of the scar
• Fresh scars – Reddish/ bluish, tender, soft.

• Up to 2 months – Pale, tender, soft.

• 2 to 6 months – Scar contracts (slightly

hard) with little tenderness.

• > 6 months – Tough, white, glistening.

 Medico-Legal Importance

• Important marks for identification

• The shape of the scar may indicate the type of

weapon or agent that caused the injury.

• Disfiguration due to scars is a grievous hurt

(Sec 320 IPC).
• Age of scar important in criminal offence
• To charge enemy-scars due to disease or
those of wounds
• Accused attribute scars of wounds to disease
or therapeutic procedures
• Linea albicantes – previous pregnancy
 Tattoo Marks

• These are the designs made artificially, by

pricking the skin with needles dipped in some
coloring/pigment matter.

• Dyes commonly used -indigo, cobalt, carbon,

cinnabar, vermilion, Prussian blue, Indian ink
etc.

• The most prominent pictures are made when

the dye penetrates the dermis.
• Most of the marks are found on the arms,
forearms and chest.

• The tattoo marks are recognised even in

decomposed bodies when the epidermis is
removed
• Permanency of tattoo marks:
Depends on - Type of dye used,
Its depth of penetration,
Part of body tattooed.

• Latent tattoo marks:

Visible by - Using UV light,
By rubbing the part,
By examining with magnifying
glass in strong light.
 Removal of Tattoo Marks

• Surgical methods:
Complete excision & skin grafting
Scarification.
Application of carbon dioxide snow.

• Electrolysis: by using 6-8 mamp of current.

• Caustic substances: Zinc chloride, tannic acid.

• LASER beam: vaporises the dye

 Complications of Tattooing
• Septic inflammation – cellulitis
Abscess formation
Gangrene formation

• Spread of contagious diseases - HIV, Leprosy,

T.B etc.
 Medico –Legal Importance
• Identity-initials , dates, own name,
place,identity numerals, marriage event etc

• Religion, God of worship, social status

• Reflects mental make up of a person –

criminality, sexual perversions, etc.
• Blue bird tattoo over the dorsum of the hand
is seen amongst the homosexuals (USA)

• Distribution, design & figures—country

• Reflect travel,history,war,occupation,sex
interest etc
• Drug addicts –tattoo in front of elbow or wrist
 Sydney shark case
• Jim smith : A boxer and police informer
disappeared
• 2 weeks later shark regurgitates arm
• Arm contained a characteristic tattoo
 Retina/ Iris identification
• Each persons retina has an unique pattern
which does not change from birth to death.
• Pattern different even in identical twins
• Most precise and accurate biometric
• Undetectable rat of low energy infrared light
into the persons eyes
• Retinal blood vessels absorb light more than
the surroundings, the amount of reflection
fluctuates.
• Results of the scan are converted into
computer code and stored
• Retinal patterns may be altered in cataracts,
glaucoma, retinal degeneration and diabetes.
Anthropometry
 Anthropometry (Bertillon system)
• Anthrops = man; Metron = measure.

• Measurements of various parts of the body.

• Alphoso Bertillon (French criminologist, 1882).

• Principle – Body measurements do not alter

after adult age (21 yrs).
Bertillon system includes
• Descriptive data:
Colour of hair, eyes, complexion, shape of nose,
ears, chin, etc.

• Bodily marks:
Birth marks, tattoos, scars.
• Body measurements:
Height (standing & sitting), length & breadth
of head, breadth of face, length of right ear,
span of outstreched arms, length of left foot,
length of left middle & little fingers, length of
left forearm & hand.
HAIR
 Structure of hair
• Cuticle
• Cortex
• Medulla
 Types of scales
Coronal scales (bat hair)

Spinous scales (Mink)

Imbricate scales (human)

 Cross section of hair
• The Cuticle is composed of non nucleated polygonal
cells

• Cortex - intermediate layer, formed of elongated,

spindle – shaped closely attached longitudinal horny
plates which contains pigment granules.

• Medulla - innermost core, irregularly cylindrical in

shape & contain scattered cells of different sizes &
shapes.
Examination of hair
Whether the material is hair or
some other fiber.
If hair, Whether it belongs to
humans or animals?
 Human hair Animal hair
• Cortex – broad • Cortex – thin
• Medulla – thin • Medulla – thick

• Medullary index < 0.3 • Medullary index > 0.5

• Pigmentation – at • Pigmentation – around

periphery of cortex the medulla

• Cuticular scale – type • Cuticular scale – varies

VII
Human hair Animal hair
 If human? What is the race, sex &
age of the person?
• Europeans: delicate in texture, straight or curly
in shape, blonde, reddish or brown in color
• Mongoloids: medium in texture, straight, black
hair
• Negroid : thick and coarse in texture, curly and
back
• Indians : medium texture, curly/ straight black
hair
• Age : appearance of pubic/ axillary hair/
moustache hair, greying of hair
• Sex : Differences in scalp hair
Distribution of pubic hair
other body hairs
Microscopically barr body
 From which part of the body it is
derived?

• Scalp hair – Usually long & soft & taper

gradually from root to the tip.

• Beard & Moustache – Thicker than the hair of

any other part of the body.

• Chest / Axilla / Pubic region – Short, stout &

curly.
• Has the hair been altered by dyeing,
bleaching or disease?

• Did the hair fall naturally or was it forcibly

removed?
 Occupational marks
• Recent and temporary
Contact traces of the solid or liquid the person
was working with.
Paint spots on painters, grease marks on
engineers and mechanics, flour on millers and
bakers
Microscopic examination of the debris and dust
particles on the clothes, underneath the nails,
pockets etc especially in unknown bodies
 Permanent
• Thickening of the palmar skin of the fingers
are seen on the right hand of the butchers
• Cuts, scars, callosities, hyerkeratosis of the
hands indicate manual laborers
• Tailors have marks of needle punctures on
the left index fingers
 Medico legal Importance

• Rape & sodomy – the pubic hair of the accused may

be found on the victim & vice versa.

• Nature of the weapon can be made out from the

injuries to hair & hair bulb:-
-A sharp weapon produces a clean uniform cut
surface.
-Blunt object crushes the shaft with flattening &
splitting.

• Singeing of hair indicates burns, or a close range

firearm injury.
• Age of a person may be determined from the
growth of hair on different parts of the body.

• Sex may be determined from their

distribution on the body, texture & from Barr
bodies.

• Chronic poisoning can be detected in the hair

for eg:- Arsenic.
• Stains on the hair indicate nature of assault
Blood : Injury
Semen : Sexual assault
Saliva : Asphyxial death
Mud : Struggle
Faecal : Sodomy
Dung : Bestiality
 FACIAL
RECONSTRUCTION
 Forensic facial reconstruction
Is the reproduction of the lost or unknown
facial features of an individual, for the
purposes of recognition and identification.
 Types of Facial reconstruction
• Replacing & repositioning the damaged or distorted
soft tissues onto a skull.

• Use of sketches & drawings.

• Superimposition technique.

• Plastic or three-dimensional reconstruction of a

face over a skull, using modeling clay.
Superimposition
Method of comparison of
skull with an antemortem
photograph.

2 methods:
Photo & Video
superimposition
 Photo superimposition
• Skull to be identified is superimposed on a
recent antemortem photograph.
• The antemortem photograph is enlarged to
life size.
• Skull is adjusted with the inclination and
orientation same as the head in the
photograph
• A life size picture is taken and superimposed
on the photograph with allowances for soft
tissues and hair thickness
 The following points are
compared:
• The eyes within the orbital plates, with the
two pairs of canthuses properly aligned.

• The Nasion.

• The Nasal spine.

• The Lower border of nose.

• The zygomas below the eyes.

• Supraorbital ridges.

• External auditory meatus.

• Teeth.
 Video superimposition
• 2 video images (one of photograph & other
of skull) are mixed on one video display unit.

Negative matching – Skull is not that of the person

in the photograph

Positive matching – Skull could be that of the person

in the photograph
• Used mainly in exclusion rather than
conclusion

• Disadvantages
Slight changes in enlargement/ angulation
can lead to discrepancy
Tissue depth markers
Anatomical structures, which define the outer surface
of the face are pasted onto the skull
Temporalis, zygomaticus & masseter muscles, orbicularis
oris, parotid gland, buccal fatty pad, fatty pad of chin.
Adding clay using the tissue depth marker guidelines
Finishing touches are applied and tissue depth
markers are covered
Painting, replacing polyfiber scalp hair &
eyebrows
 DNA
FINGERPRINTING
 Uses of DNA analysis
• Identify suspects, whose DNA may match
evidence left at crime scenes.
• Identify victims of crime & catastrophe.
• Establish paternity and other family
relationships.
• Match organ donors with recipients in
transplant programs.
• Detect bacteria and other organisms.
• Determine pedigree for seed or livestock
breeds.
 Deoxyribonucleic acid (DNA)
• DNA is a nucleic acid that
contains the genetic
instructions for the biological
development of a cellular
form of life.
• DNA fingerprinting method is
invented by Sir Alec Jeffreys at
the University of Leicester in
1985.
 Molecular structure of DNA
• DNA is a double-stranded
structure coiled into a helix.

• Made up of 2 phosphate-
sugar strands (deoxyribose)
bridged by pairs of
nucleotides (bases).

• Bases – Adenine, Guanine,

Cytosine, Thymine.
A–T;G–C

• Each person will have 3 billion

nucleotides.
 Scientific basis of DNA typing
• DNA codes for the genetic information
responsible for all cellular processes.
• Several DNA molecules comprise of genes
which in turn are located in chromosomes.
• Chromosomal regions contain repeating units
of same type of DNA molecules which vary
from person to person.
• Short tandem repeats used as markers for
identification
 Mitochondrial DNA
• Unlike nuclear DNA with two copies per cell,
mitochondrial DNA contain mutilple copies
upto 100.000.
• mDNA is method of choice in
environmentally challenged samples
• Eg: mass disasters, exhumed remains.
 DNA fingerprinting methods
DNA fingerprinting is done by extracting DNA from
the cells in a sample of blood, saliva, semen & other
appropriate fluid or tissue.
 Restriction fragment length polymorphism
(RFLP) analysis.

 Polymerase chain reaction (PCR) analysis.

 Short tandem repeat (STR) analysis.

 Mitochondrial DNA (mtDNA) analysis.

RFLP technique
PCR : Amplification
PCR analysis
• Tandemly repeated DNA sequences are
widespread in the human genome and are
variable.
• Depending on the size of the repeat region
- Minisatellites ( VNTR): 9 to 80 bp
- Microsatellites ( STR): 2 – 5 bp repeats
• Multiple STR loci are examined
• 13 selected loci are used as stipulated by FBI
• ( CODIS)
 Collection of samples
• 2-5 ml blood in heparin / EDTA (packed in ice if to be
sent immediately or store in refrigerator at 4°C).
• Swabs from genitalia & stains on body are air dried &
kept in dry sterile tubes.
• 100 mg muscle in sterile tube with 0.9% normal saline/
20% dimethyl sulphoxide as preservative.
• Products of conception & foetal tissue preserved in
0.9% normal saline.
• Dry tissues (bones, teeth, hair with roots, fingernail
scrapings) stored without any preservative.
 Authentication and forwarding
• Blood samples in case of paternity disputes to
be collected in the presence of a judicial officer.
• Samples must be sealed and the specimen of
seal on the cloth must be sent.
• Identification card and a forwarding note has to
be sent.
• Blood samples not be collected in subjects
undergone blood transfusion in 3 months.
 Status of DNA Typing
as a forensic tool
Advantages:
• Most conclusive method (sensitivity 1 in 82 billion).
• Can be applied on very old stains.
• Extremely small quantity of sample.

Disadvantages:
• Cannot differentiate identical twins.
• Expensive.
• Great deal of expertise & experience needed for
interpretation of results.
 Indian scenario
• Use of DNA for paternity cases outnumber the
criminal cases.
• In trials emphasis is based on population
genetics
• Labs calculate in odds of one in millions or
billions
• DNA typing labs in India : CDFD, Hyderabad,
CFSL Kolkata
 Effacement of identity
Obliteration or destruction of identity
The following methods are used
Living
Purposive removal of identifying features
Eg: fingerprints, tattoos, scars moles
Concealing of sex
 In the dead
• Mutilation of dead bodies by predators
• Burning or incineration
• Advanced putrefaction
• Dismemberment and burying or throwing of
different parts in different places.
• Chemical destruction in corrosives or alkalies.
• Dismemberment by train accidents/ machinery
• Bomb explosives
Thank you