Networking 1
Module 3
Networking Models
• When dealing with networking, you may hear the terms "network
models" and "network layers" used often.
• Network model defines a set of network layers and how they
interact.
There are several different network models
depending on what organization or company
started them. The most important two are:
1. TCP/IP model
2. OSI network model.
TCP/IP Model
Transmission Control Protocol/Internet Protocol
TCP/IP Model
• This model is sometimes
called the DoD model since it
was designed for the
Department of Defense.
• It is also called the Internet
model because TCP/IP is the
protocol used on the Internet.
TCP/IP is a four layered
standard.
OSI Network Model
Open Systems Interconnection
OSI Network Model
• The Open System
Interconnection (OSI) model
defines a networking framework
to implement protocols in seven
layers.
• There is really nothing to the OSI
model. In fact, it's not even
tangible. The OSI model doesn't
perform any functions in the
networking process. It is a
conceptual framework so we can
better understand complex
interactions that are happening.
Who
Developed
the OSI?
The International
Standards Organization
(ISO) developed the Open
Systems Interconnection
(OSI) model. It divides
network communication into
seven layers.
• Layers 1-4 are considered the lower layers,
and mostly concern themselves with moving
data around. These layers implement more
primitive, hardware-oriented functions like
routing, addressing, and flow control.
• Layers 5-7, the upper layers, contain
application-level data. These layers represent
software that implements network services like
encryption and connection management.
Networks operate on one basic principle: "pass it
on." Each layer takes care of a very specific job,
and then passes the data onto the next layer.
7 Layers of
OSI
7 Layers of
OSI
It is divided by 2 layers
1. Host Layers
2. Media Layers
Application (Layer 7)
The application layer serves as the window for users and
application processes to access network services. This
layer contains a variety of commonly needed functions:
1. Resource sharing and device
redirection
2. Remote file access
3. Remote printer access
4. Inter-process communication
5. Network management
6. Directory services
7. Electronic messaging (such as mail)
8. Network virtual terminals
Layer 7 Application examples include WWW browsers,
Network File System (NFS), Simple Network
Management Protocol (SNMP), Teletype Network
(Telnet), Hypertext Transfer Protocol (HTTP), File
Transfer Protocol (FTP).
Presentation (Layer 6)
This layer provides independence from differences in
data representation (e.g., encryption) by translating
from application to network format, and vice versa. The
presentation layer works to transform data into the
form that the application layer can accept. This layer
formats and encrypts data to be sent across a network,
providing freedom from compatibility problems.
It is sometimes called the syntax layer.
1. Character code translation: for example, ASCII
to EBCDIC.
2. Data conversion: bit order, CR-CR/LF, integer-
floating point, and so on.
3. Data compression: reduces the number of bits
that need to be transmitted on the network.
4. Data encryption: encrypt data for security
purposes. For example, password encryption.
5. Layer 6 Presentation examples include
encryption, ASCII, EBCDIC, TIFF, GIF, PICT,
JPEG, MPEG, MIDI.
Session (Layer 5)
This layer establishes, manages, and
terminates connections between
applications. The session layer sets up,
coordinates, and terminates conversations,
exchanges, and dialogues between the
applications at each end. It deals with
session and connection coordination.
The session layer allows session establishment
between processes running on different stations. It
provides:
1. Session establishment, maintenance and
termination, allows two application processes on
different machines to establish, use and
terminate a connection, called a SESSION.
2. SESSION SUPPORT: performs the functions
that allow these processes to communicate over
the network, performing security, name
recognition, logging, and so on.
Layer 5 Session examples include NFS, NetBios
names, Remote Protocol Call (RPC), SQL.
Transport (Layer 4)
Layer 4, provides transparent transfer of data between
end systems, or hosts, and is responsible for end-to-end
error recovery and flow control. It ensures complete data
transfer.
The transport layer ensures that messages are delivered
error-free, in sequence, and
with no losses or duplications. It relieves the higher layer
protocols from any concern with the transfer of data
between them and their peers.
The transport layer provides:
1. Message segmentation: accepts a message from the
(session) layer above it, splits the message into smaller
units (if not already small enough), and passes the
smaller units down to the network layer. The transport
layer at the destination station reassembles the
message.
2. Message acknowledgment: provides reliable end-to-end
message delivery with acknowledgments.
3. Message traffic control: tells the transmitting station to
"back-off" when no message buffers are available.
4. Session multiplexing: multiplexes several message
streams, or sessions onto one logical link and keeps
track of which messages belong to which sessions (see
session layer).
Transport (Layer 4)
Typically, the transport layer can accept relatively
large messages, but there are strict message size
limits imposed by the network (or lower) layer.
Consequently, the transport layer must break up the
messages into smaller units, or frames, prepending a
header to each frame.
Layer 4 Transport examples include Sequence Packet
Exchange (SPX), Transmission Control Protocol (TCP),
User Datagram Protocol (UDP).
End-to-end layers
• Unlike the lower "subnet" layers whose
protocol is between immediately adjacent
nodes, the transport layer and the layers
above are true "source to destination" or
end-to-end layers, and are not concerned
with the details of the underlying
communications facility. Transport layer
software (and software above it) on the
source station carries on a conversation with
similar software on the destination station by
using message headers and control
messages.
Network (Layer 3)
Layer 3 provides switching and routing
technologies, creating logical paths, known
as virtual circuits, for transmitting data
from node to node. Routing and forwarding
are functions of this layer, as well as
addressing, internetworking, error handling,
congestion control and packet sequencing.
It provides:
1. Routing: routes frames among networks.
2. Subnet traffic control: routers (network layer intermediate
systems) can instruct a sending station to "throttle back" its
frame transmission when the router's buffer fills up.
3. Frame fragmentation: if it determines that a downstream
router's maximum transmission unit (MTU) size is less than
the frame size, a router can fragment a frame for
transmission and re-assembly at the destination station.
4. Logical-physical address mapping: translates logical
addresses, or names, into physical addresses.
5. Subnet usage accounting: has accounting functions to keep
track of frames forwarded by subnet intermediate systems,
to produce billing information.
Data Link (Layer 2)
Layer 2, data packets are encoded
and decoded into bits. It furnishes
transmission protocol knowledge
and management and handles
errors in the physical layer, flow
control and frame synchronization.
The data link layer is divided into two sub
layers:
1. Media Access Control (MAC) layer
• The MAC sub layer controls how a
computer on the network gains access to
the data and permission to transmit it.
2. Logical Link Control (LLC) layer.
• The LLC layer controls frame
synchronization, flow control and error
checking.
Data Link (Layer 2)
The data link layer provides error-free
transfer of data frames from one node to
another over the physical layer, allowing
layers above it to assume virtually error-free
transmission over the link.
To do this, the data link layer provides:
• Link establishment and termination: establishes and
terminates the logical link between two nodes.
• Frame traffic control: tells the transmitting node to "back-
off" when no frame buffers are available.
• Frame sequencing: transmits/receives frames sequentially.
• Frame acknowledgment: provides/expects frame
acknowledgments. Detects and recovers from errors that
occur in the physical layer by retransmitting non-
acknowledged frames and handling duplicate frame receipt.
• Frame delimiting: creates and recognizes frame boundaries.
• Frame error checking: checks received frames for integrity.
• Media access management: determines when the node "has
the right" to use the physical medium.
Layer 2 Data Link examples include Point to
Point Protocol (PPP), Fiber Distributed Data
Interface (FDDI), Asynchronous Transfer Mode
(ATM), IEEE 802.5/ 802.2, IEEE 802.3/802.2, High
Level Data Link Control (HDLC), Frame Relay.
Physical (Layer 1)
Layer 1 conveys the bit stream - electrical impulse, light or
radio signal — through the network at the electrical and
mechanical level. It provides the hardware means of
sending and receiving data on a carrier, including defining
cables, cards and physical aspects. Fast Ethernet, RS232,
and ATM are protocols with physical layer components.
It provides:
1. Data encoding: modifies the simple digital signal pattern (1s and 0s) used
by the PC to better accommodate the characteristics of the physical
medium, and to aid in bit and frame synchronization. It determines:
2. What signal state represents a binary 1
3. How the receiving station knows when a "bit-time" starts
4. How the receiving station delimits a frame
5. Physical medium attachment, accommodating various possibilities in the
medium:
6. Will an external transceiver (MAU) be used to connect to the medium?
7. How many pins do the connectors have and what is each pin used for?
8. Transmission technique: determines whether the encoded bits will be
transmitted by baseband (digital) or broadband (analog) signaling.
9. Physical medium transmission: transmits bits as electrical or optical signals
appropriate for the physical medium, and determines:
10. What physical medium options can be used
11. How many volts/db should be used to represent a given signal state, using
Theaphysical
given physical medium
layer, the lowest layer of the OSI model, is
concerned with the transmission and reception of the
unstructured raw bit stream over a physical medium. It
describes the electrical/optical, mechanical, and functional
interfaces to the physical medium, and carries the signals
for all of the higher layers.
OSI MODEL
7. Application
● Purpose: Provides network services to user applications
● Examples: HTTP, HTTPS, FTP, SMTP, DNS
● Example use: A web browser requesting a webpage
6. Presentation
● Purpose: Data formatting, encryption, compression
● Examples: SSL/TLS, JPEG, MP3
● Example use: Encrypting data before sending it securely
5. Session
● Purpose: Manages sessions between devices
● Examples: NetBIOS, RPC
● Example use: Maintaining a login session while browsing a website
OSI MODEL
4. Transport 1. Physical
● Purpose: Reliable or unreliable data delivery ● Purpose: Transmits raw bits over the medium
● Examples: TCP, UDP ● Examples: Cables, fiber optics, voltages, NICs
● Example use: TCP ensures all webpage data arrives correctly ● Example use: Sending electrical signals through a
network cable
3. Network
● Purpose: Logical addressing and routing
● Examples: IP, ICMP, routing protocols (OSPF, RIP)
● Example use: Routers selecting the best path for data packets
2. Data Link
● Purpose: Physical addressing and error detection
● Examples: Ethernet, ARP, MAC addresses
● Example use: Switches forwarding frames using MAC addresses
OSI MODEL
Simple Real-Life Example: Loading a
Website
When you open [Link] in a browser:
1. Application: Browser sends an HTTP request
2. Presentation: Data is encrypted (HTTPS)
3. Session: A session is established
4. Transport: TCP breaks data into segments
5. Network: IP adds logical addresses and routes packets
6. Data Link: Ethernet adds MAC addresses
7. Physical: Bits are transmitted over cables or Wi-Fi
Things to remember
Protocol model- closely matches the structure of
a particular protocol suite. The hierarchical set of
related protocols in a suite represents all the Directory Service - it maps the names of network
functionality required to interface the human resources to their respective network
network with the data network. addresses.
Reference model - provides a common reference Router - it translates information from one
for maintaining consistency within all types of network to another.
network protocols and services.
Coaxial cable -it is a single inner wire made of
ISO means International Organization for two conducting elements.
Standardization.
Wireless Communication - it uses radio
Video on demand/ display - systems which allow frequencies (RF) or infrared (IR)
users to select and watch/listen to video or audio waves to transmit data between devices on a
content such as movies and TV shows. LAN.
SNMP or Simple Network Management
Bridge -it is a device that allows you to segment
Protocol - Internet-standard protocol for
a large network into two
collecting and organizing information about
managed devices on IP networks. smaller.
DHCP or Dynamic Host Configuration
Protocol - is used to assign networking
configuration information to network hosts.
Things to remember
1. Connect devices on ethernet ports within a
LAN environment(via RJ-45 connector)
2. center in most networks
1. Cable
3. computers connected to a network/server
2. Server
3. Workstation
4. LANcard
4. NIC 5. medium through which information moves
from devices in a wired setup
5. Switch
6. Protocols
6. Rules
7. exchanges messages with each other
7. Device
8. means of interconnecting the devices
8. Medium
9. Messages
9. unit of information that travel on devices
10. Hardware 10. Computers, devices, equipment,
peripherals,
network cards
The End.