General Geology (GEO 100)
Chapter 1
Introduction
What is Geology
Geology is the study of Earth which includes
studying:
1. The materials that it is made of
2. The physical and chemical changes that take
place on its surface and in its interior
3. The history of the planet and its life form
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What is Geology
Geology is broadly divided into:
• Physical geology
concerned with the materials which compose
the Earth and the processes which operate
on the surface of and within the Earth.
• Historical geology
concerned with the origin and evolution of
Earth's continents, oceans, atmosphere, and
life.
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Branches of
Geology
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Geology in our Lives
Geology is relevant to
everyone’s day-to-day life.
Metals and energy sources
such as coal and petroleum are
geologic products that build
and power modern society.
Water, a precious natural
resource is used in industry,
agriculture and domestic
purpose is also a geologic
product.
Natural hazards like tsunamis,
landslides, earthquakes and
5 volcanic eruptions are also
related to geology.
What does a geologist
do
Geologists study earth processes:
Many processes such as landslides,
earthquakes, floods and volcanic eruptions
can be hazardous to people.
Geologists work to understand these
processes well enough to avoid building
important structures where they might be
damaged.
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What does a geologist do
If geologists can prepare maps of areas that
have flooded in the past they can prepare
maps of areas that might be flooded in the
future.
These maps can be used to guide the
development of communities and determine
where flood protection or flood insurance is
needed.
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What does a geologist do
Geologists study earth materials:
Geologists conduct studies that locate rocks that
contain important resources such as metals, oil,
natural gas, and ground water.
Geologists study earth history:
The better they can understand Earth’s history the
better they can foresee how events and processes of
the past might influence the future.
To learn about the past climates of earth and how they
have changed across time.
This information is valuable to understand how our
current climate is changing and what the results might
8 be.
Where do geologists
work
Jobs in geology are found in government agencies, private
companies, and non-profit and academic institutions.
Government agencies hire geologists to investigate, plan
and evaluate excavations, construction sites, natural
disaster preparedness, and natural resources.
Private companies hire geologists to help locate natural
resources (minerals, oil and natural gas), evaluate
environmental impact and comply with government
regulations, among many other tasks.
Geologists who prefer an academic career usually work,
either as educators, researchers or both, in middle or high
schools, colleges, universities and museums.
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Formation of the Solar System
Earth was not around at the beginning—the universe began
without us some 10 billion years earlier than Earth.
The universe started out with only two elements,
hydrogen and helium gas.
They formed stars that burned these elements in nuclear
fusion reactions.
Generations of stars were born in gas clouds and died in
explosive novas.
Some 5 billion years ago a supernova exploded, pushing a
lot of its heavy-element wreckage into a nearby cloud of
hydrogen gas and interstellar dust.
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Formation of the Solar System
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Formation of the Solar System
The planets of the solar system can be divided into groups
depending on their proximity to the sun and their density.
The terrestrial planets are the four closest to the sun and are
all similar to the Earth in density.
They include Mercury, Venus, Earth and Mars. All four terrestrial
planets are small, rocky and dense (3 g/cm3 or more).
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Formation of the Solar System
The Jovian planets are those farther from the sun
than Mars
They include Jupiter, Saturn, Uranus and Neptune.
They are much larger than the Earth but their
densities are very low.
They are made up of light elements most Hydrogen
and Helium and hence their densities are low
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Formation of the Earth
1. The Earth is approximately 4.6 billion years old and is
believed that it was formed by accretion of small particles.
2. The Earth has a layered structure. The center is a dense, hot
core composed mainly of iron and nickel .
3. A thick mantle, composed mainly of solid rock, surrounds
the core and contains 80 percent of the Earth’s volume.
4. The crust is a thin surface also composed of rock.
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Structure of the Earth
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The Earth Layers
1) Crust: the outermost and thinnest layer. Because the crust is relatively
cool, it consists of hard, strong rocks. Crust beneath the oceans differs
from that of continents.
Oceanic crust is 5 to 10 kilometers thick and is composed mostly of a
dark, dense rock called basalt.
Continental crust average thickness of about 20 to 40 kilometers,
although under mountain ranges it can be as much as 70 kilometers thick,
composed primarily of a light-colored, less dense rock called granite.
The Earth Layers
2) Mantle:
lies directly below the crust.
almost 2900 kilometers thick
and makes up 80 percent of the
Earth’s volume.
Although the chemical
composition may be similar
throughout the mantle, Earth
temperature and pressure
increase with depth.
These changes cause the
strength of mantle rock to vary
with depth, and thus they create
layering within the mantle.
The Earth Layers
3) The Lithosphere:
the outer part of the Earth,
including both the
uppermost mantle and
the crust, make up the
lithosphere.
the lithosphere varies from
about 75 kilometers thick
beneath ocean basins to
about 125 kilometers
under the continents.
The Earth Layers
4) The Core:
the innermost of the Earth’s layers.
It is a sphere with a radius of about
3470 kilometers and is composed
largely of iron and nickel.
The outer core is molten because of
the high temperature.
Near its center, the temperature is
about 6000ºC, as hot as the Sun’s
surface.
The pressure is greater than 1 million
times that of the Earth’s atmosphere at
sea level.
The extreme pressure overwhelms the
temperature effect and compresses the
inner core to a solid.
Geo-spheres
The area near the surface of the earth can
be divided into four inter-connected "geo-
spheres:" the atmosphere, hydrosphere,
lithosphere and the biosphere.
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Atmospher
e
1. The atmosphere is the body of air
which surrounds our planet.
2. Most of our atmosphere is located
close to the earth's surface where it is
most dense.
3. The atmosphere provides the air that
we breathe, and acts to protect us from
the Sun’s intense heat and dangerous
ultraviolet radiation.
4. The air of our planet is 79% nitrogen
and just under 21% oxygen; the small
amount remaining is composed of
carbon dioxide and other gasses.
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Hydrosphere
1. The hydrosphere is
composed of all of the
water on or near the earth.
2. This includes the oceans,
rivers, lakes, and even the
moisture in the air.
3. 97% of the earth's water is
in the oceans.
4. The remaining 3% is fresh
water; 3/4 of the fresh
water is solid and exists in
ice sheets.
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Lithosphere
Beneath the atmosphere and the oceans is the solid Earth, or
lithosphere.
The lithosphere is the solid, rocky crust covering entire planet.
This crust is inorganic and is composed of minerals.
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Biosphere
The biosphere is composed of all living
organisms.
Plants, animals, and one-celled organisms are
all part of the biosphere.
Most of the planet's life is found from 30 meters
above the ground to 3 meters below to it, and
in the top 200 meters of the oceans and seas.
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Processes acting on the Earth
The Earth is a dynamic system that is it
undergoes constant changes with time
both internally and on its surface.
Internal Processes
Processes that originate deep within the
Earth. These are the driving forces that
raise mountains, cause earthquakes and
produce volcanic eruptions.
Surface Processes
Processes which take place on the earth’s
surface and result in sculpting the earth’s
surface. Most of the surface processes are
driven by water, though wind, ice and
25 gravity also play an important role.
Uniformitarianism
According to the Principle of
Uniformitarianism, geological changes
take place over a long period of time.
Geological processes operating today also
operated in the past therefore scientists can
explain events that occurred in the past by
observing changes that are occurring today.
Sometimes this whole idea is also known as
“The present is the key to the past.”
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Uniformitarianism
The formation of river valleys due to the action of running water
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is an example of very slow and gradual changes
Catastrophism
Geologic change was sometimes rapid.
Catastrophism phenomenon where earth
was subjected to rapid geological change
as a result of certain catastrophe.
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Catastrophism
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Uniformitarianism and
Catastrophism
Today, geologists know that both
uniformitarianism and catastrophism
are correct.
Thus, over the great expanses of geologic
time, slow, uniform processes are
significant, but improbable, catastrophic
events radically modify the path of slow
change.
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The End
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