BAEEE101 – BASIC
ENGINEERING
Module – IV – Manufacturing Processes,
Energy conversions and Mechanical
Automation
Lecture – 11 – Metal Casting & Forming
Course Faculty:
Dr. A. Vinoth Jebaraj, SMEC
Vellore Institute of Technology
Source: Materials Selection in Mechanical Design Fourth Edition Michael F. Ashby
Sand Casting [Expendable mold casting]
Use of temporary, non-reusable molds (mold is broken to take out the
solidified cast). No limit to size, shape or weight.
Suitable for materials with high melting point temperature.
Coarser surface finish and wide tolerance.
Section View of Sand Casting
Selection of parting line
along flat plane rather
than contoured is better
for economical casting.
Parting Molding
Flask Pattern Core
line sand
A metal or
wood frame. The mold Mixture of Part of the
Dividing
cavity is silica sand, mold,
[Drag – lower line
made with clay, and generally
flask, Cope – between the
the help of moisture baked, used
upper flask, flasks that
wood or without to create
Cheek – makes up
metal losing its various
intermediate the mold
pattern permeability cavities
flask]
Elements of Sand Casting
Pouring
Sprue Runner Chaplets Riser
basin
A column of
Funnel The passage The channel
Used to molten
shaped through through the
support the metal
cavity in which the molten
cores to placed in
which the molten metal is
take care of the mold to
molten metal carried from
its own feed the
metal is reaches the the sprue to
weight castings as
poured mold cavity the gate
it shrinks
Why Metal Casting?
Selection of Manufacturing process mainly depends on material and
shape.
Metal casting can produce large sized parts and complex shapes (internal
cavities or hollow sections ).
Materials that are difficult or expensive to manufacture using other
manufacturing process can be cast.
Exhaust Manifold Gearbox Housing
Image: DFM Handbook, James Bralla [Link]
Steps Involved in Sand Casting
Casting
Step1: Place a pattern (Shape of the part to
be cast.
Step2: Incorporate the gating system.
Step3: Remove the pattern and fill the mold
cavity with molten metal.
Step4: Allow the molten metal to cool until
Source: Materials Selection in Mechanical it solidifies.
Design Fourth Edition Michael F. Ashby
Step5: Break the sand mold and remove the
cast component.
Steps Involved in Sand Casting
Source: [Link]
instruction
Casting Defects
Shift or Mismatch Metal Penetration
Improper alignment of mold Blowholes Improper mold strength,
cavities on cope and drag Insufficient Venting high pouring temperature
Shrinkage Cavity Cold Shut Hot Tears or Hot Cracks
Poor design or feeding Low pouring temperature, Improper composition
system Lack of fluidity
How to avoid Shrinkage Cavity?
Solidification of intersecting sections results in hot spots and shrinkage cavities.
Hot spots retard solidification and usually cause porosity and shrinkage cavities.
Liquid-to-solid shrinkage can leave a void
at the last point to solidify.
Importance of Riser Placement
The riser supplies metal to the casting during solidification and contains
the final void. The riser is removed later, leaving a solid casting.
Risers are attached to the heaviest sections. All surrounding sections
should be thinner. The thinnest sections are farthest from the riser and
solidify first. Solidification progresses toward the heaviest section and
then the riser.
The designer should visualize the direction of solidification and taper
sections as necessary to ensure that solidification proceeds toward the
direction of risers, thus minimizing the chance for voids to occur.
Pattern/Casting/Component
The construction of pattern must take account of:
The mould parting line
Machined surfaces
Shrinkage of material
Draft to facilitate the extraction from the
mould Cast Iron Pulley –
Machined All Over
Ref: Designing for Manufacture by Harry Peck
Types of Patterns
Single Piece Pattern
or Solid pattern Split pattern Match plate pattern
A pattern made as a single, Constructed in two or more Cope and drag halves of the
complete unit without any parts, typically separated at pattern are mounted on
joints or loose pieces the parting line. opposite sides of a plate.
Sweep pattern Gated pattern Skeleton pattern
To create mold cavities, To create multiple identical To create molds for simple,
particularly for symmetrical castings within a single large castings
castings mold
Casting With and Without Core
Bush Moulded All in
Bottom Box – Single
Draft Angle
Cast Iron Bush
CORES are placed in the mold to
provide castings with contours,
cavities and passages
Bush Moulded Half in Each Sand Core in Position – Mould
Box – Double Draft Angle Ready for Pouring
Ref: Designing for Manufacture by Harry Peck
Chaplets
Chaplets are metal spacers placed in the mold to support a core or to space it a
fixed distance from the mold wall.
Chaplets are used to prevent core sag before pouring and core float after
pouring.
In theory, the chaplet fuses with the casting, to form a continuous wall.
Extrusion
Extrusion - To produce long parts of uniform cross sections
Initial shape is squeezed
through a die to get the
deformed part in the shape of
die opening.
It is used to produce cylindrical
bars and hollow tubes.
Most of the parts are produced
Hot Extrusion
by hot extrusion, because
required flow stress for metal is
less at high temperature.
Extrusion process sequence:
Heating of billet of metal Insertion into a container Forcing through a die
hole Desired cross-section.
Extrudability is in reverse order of strength. Al, Cu, Mg, Zn alloys > Steels
Types of Extrusion
Force needed for the
extrusion of billet is
more.
Frictional forces are
easily eliminated due to
simultaneous movement
of billet and container.
Source: Materials Selection in Mechanical Thin walled extrusions are more difficult to
Design Fourth Edition Michael F. Ashby produce due to difficult flow of metal in narrow
path.
Types of Extrusion
Hot Extrusion Above the recrystallization temperature, to ensure easy flow
and to avoid work hardening,
Cold Extrusion Done at room temperature or at warm condition, lack of
oxidation, higher strength due to cold working, closer tolerances, better
surface finish.
Impact Extrusion Billet is pressed at a high velocity with extreme force into
a die by a punch.
Hydro-static Extrusion Billet is completely surrounded by a pressurized liquid
(Less friction, ductility increases at high pressures, even flow, No residue on walls).
High-strength alloys require
Extrusion Force
higher pressures and a slower
extrusion rate.
High die wear during extrusion is
a major factor.
The maximum size of an extrudable
cross section depends on
The tonnage of the press
available
The material to be extruded
The complexity of the cross
section.
In general, the capacity is measured
in terms of CCD (circumscribing-
Source: [Link]
circle diameter).
Aluminum [6.3 mm to 1.02 m] has greater CCD’s than steel [maximum of 150 mm] due to
larger forces.
Good and bad practice in the design of cross-sections to
be extruded
Section walls should be balanced as much as the design function permits
because die strain and extrusion distortion tend to occur with unbalanced
cross sections.
When dimensions are critical, cold drawing the extruded section refines and
smoothen the surface as well as improving dimensional accuracy.
Flow pattern S
Flow pattern S Absence of friction at the
container and die interfaces Extrusion of
homogeneous materials (uniform composition).
Flow pattern C Inhomogeneous material
properties Non-uniform temperature
distribution More extended DMZ is formed
Flow pattern C more severe shear deformation at the container
wall.
Metal flow lines and DMZ
in cold extrusion
Reference: Qamar, S. Z. (2010) 'Shape Complexity, Metal Flow, and Dead Metal Zone in Cold Extrusion',
Materials and Manufacturing Processes, 25: 12, 1454 — 1461.
Forging
Forging
Forging complexity is increased by
several features.
The presence of thin sections in
Source: Materials Selection in Mechanical
the part
Design Fourth Edition Michael F. Ashby
Large changes in cross-sectional
Forging provides increased area of the part
mechanical strength and superior
structural integrity and eliminates Part shapes that require the die
cavities, voids and pores. parting line to be cranked
Closed Die Forging
Conventional impression-die forging
sequence
Ref: Design for Manufacturability - Handbook, James Bralla, Mc Graw Hill
More
complex and
Refined and highly
controlled deformed
grain shape
Controlled
plastic structure
deformation @
elevated
temperature
Ref:
Forging Nomenclature
Rib, and boss Any wall filled by flow parallel to die motion.
Web The wall filled by horizontal flow, perpendicular to die motion and parallel to
the parting plane.
Recess Small web area surrounded by thicker metal.
Features of a part to the direction of die motion
Parting line location is a critical step in forging design. It determines the die cost, draft
requirements, grain flow, and trimming procedures.
Ref: Design for Manufacturability - Handbook, James Bralla, Mc Graw Hill
Benefits of Forging
Grain flow is the directional pattern that metal
crystals assume during plastic deformation.
Unbroken grain flow following the contour of the
part.
Alignment of grain flow with directions of the
principal stresses.
Enhanced mechanical properties along the grain flow
direction than in the randomly oriented crystals of
cast metal or weld metal.
Ref: Design for Manufacturability - Handbook, James Bralla, Mc Graw Hill
Forging Allowances
Parts produced by hot forging require machining on surfaces that locate with other
parts in a final product.
Machining allowance Based on the amount
of oxidation that results from heating the
part up to the forging temperature.
Draft allowances on inside surfaces are
greater than outside surfaces because of the
tendency of the part to shrink onto projections
in the die as cooling takes place.
Radii are necessary to aid material flow and
ensure good die filling.
Ref: Product Design for Manufacture and Assembly, Geoffrey Boothroyd CRC Press.
Metal flow is relatively easy to manage when ribs and bosses are not too high and
narrow, and it is easiest when the web is relatively thick and uniform in thickness.
When there is a choice, locate the parting line so that metal will flow horizontally, parallel to
the parting line.
Ref: Design for Manufacturability - Handbook, James Bralla, Mc Graw Hill
Rolling Flat Rolling, and Shape Rolling
Extrusion
Source: Materials Selection in
The metal is plastically deformed between
Mechanical Design Fourth Edition
Michael F. Ashby rotating rolls and causes reduction in
thickness and change of shape [cross-section].
The volume remains same due to reduction in
thickness and increase in length and width.
Hot rolled steel is ideal for products where
tight tolerances are not required.
Types of Rolling
Characteristics of Cold
Rolling
Better, more finished surfaces
with closer tolerances.
Smooth surfaces that are often
oily to the touch.
Bars are true and square, and
often have well-defined edges
and corners.
Tubes have better concentric
uniformity and straightness.
[Link]
Important Terms of Rolling
Roll gap
Roll Force
Roll Force
Draft Initial Thickness – Final Thickness
Source: [Link]
al-grain-size-matters-in-sheet-metal-bending
Back-up Rolls
Large rolls are used to support smaller work rolls in high load
applications
Source: [Link]
Shape Rolling
Source: [Link]
Hot Rolling, Hot forging, Hot Cold Rolling, Cold forging, Cold
Extrusion Extrusion
Above recrystallization Below recrystallization
temperature temperature
More ductility of metals at Less ductility at room
high temperature temperature
Less force is required More tonnage is required
Rough surface finish due to Better finish and dimensional
oxidation and scale formation accuracy
No residual stress formation Residual stress is induced to
plastic deformation
More tool life Tool life is less due to wear
More energy consumption due Less consumption of heat
to the requirement of heating energy but more force is
required
How It’s Made?
Identify the given parts and name the manufacturing process used.
Justify the reason behind choosing that manufacturing process.