THE TWO MAJOR SOURCES OF ENERGY IS CLASSIFIED AS:

Conventional Sources
Non-Conventional Sources
The classification of the sources of energy is given in the below image.
Conventional Sources of Energy
Conventional Sources of Energy are also known as non-renewable sources of energy and
are available in limited quantity apart from hydro-electric power. Further, it is classified
under commercial and non-commercial energy.
Commercial Energy Sources
Coal, electricity and petroleum are known as commercial energy since the consumer needs
to pay its price to buy them.
Coal : Coal is the most important source of energy. There are more than 1,48,790 coal
deposits in India, and between 2005-2006, the annual production went up to 343 million
tons. India is the fourth-largest coal-producing country, and the deposits are primarily
found in Bihar, Orissa, Madhya Pradesh, Jharkhand and Bengal.
Oil and Natural Gas: Oil is considered liquid gold and one of the crucial energy sources in
India and the world. Oil is primarily used in planes, automobiles, trains and ships. The total
oil production in India was 0.3 million tons in 1950-51, which increased up to 32.4 million
tons in 2000-01. It is mainly found in Assam, Gujarat and Mumbai.
Electricity: Electricity is a common form of energy used for domestic and commercial
purposes, and it is mainly utilized in electrical appliances like fridges, T.V, washing
machines and air conditioning.
The major sources of power generation are: Nuclear Power; Thermal Power; Hydro-electric
power
Thermal Power: Thermal power is generated at various power stations utilizing oil and
coal. It is a vital source of electric current, and its share in the nation’s total capacity in
2004-05 was 70 percent.
Hydroelectric Power: Hydroelectric power is produced by constructing dams above
flowing rivers like Damodar Valley Project and Bhakra Nangal Project. The installed
capacity of hydroelectric power was 587.4 mW in 1950-51 and went up to 19600 mW in
2004-05.
Nuclear Power: The fuel used in nuclear power plants is Uranium, which costs less than
coal. Nuclear power plants can be found in Kaiga (Karnataka), Kota (Rajasthan), Naroura
(UP) and Kalapakam(Chennai).
Difference
Conventional SourcesBetween
of Energy Conventional and Non-Conventional Sources of Energy
Non-conventional sources of energy

These sources of energy are also known as a non-renewable source of energy These sources of energy are also known as a renewable source of energy

They find both commercial and industrial purposes They are mainly used for household purposes

These can be considered to be one of the reasons for the cause of pollution These are not responsible for the cause of pollution

Coal, fossil fuels are two examples Wind, solar energy and Biomass two examples
Schematic Layout of Hydro Electric Power Plant
A schematic layout of hydro-electric power plant is shown in Figure A large amount of water is collected during rainy
season in a reservoir behind a dam. In case the rainfall is low in a particular year the low head of the reservoir will not be
able to meet the maximum load, therefore, the present trend is to use hydro-electric power plant with steam power
plant an interconnected system.
The main components of the hydro-electric power plant and their functions are a follows :
[Link] : A reservoir is provided to store water during rainy season and supplies the same in dry season.
The water from the reservoir is used to run the hydraulic turbine.
2. Dam : A dam is structure of considerable height built across the river. Its function is to provide working
head of water for power plant and to increase the storage capacity of reservoir.
3. Trash rack : These are made up of steel bars. Trash rack is provided to prevent entry of debris into the
intakes from dam or from the forebays. Any debris into the intake water pipe may damage the turbine
runners or choke the nozzles of an impulse turbine.
4. Gate : The gate is provided for controlling of flow of water from reservoir to hydraulic turbine through
penstock . It is closed when maintenance of system is required.
5. Forebays : It is small water reservoir at the end of water passage from the reservoir and before the water
is fed to the turbine to the penstock as shown in Figure B.

It acts as a temporary regulating reservoir. It stores water when the load on the plant
reduces and the same water is supplied to the turbine at the time of increasing load in the
initial stages. It helps in absorbing the flow variations.
6. Surge tank : In case the load on the turbine suddenly decreases, the gates admitting water to the turbine
are suddenly closed due to governor action. As a result it reduces the water flow with sudden increase of
pressures in the penstock. This sudden rise of pressure in penstock is called "Water Hammer".
7. Waterway and penstock : A waterway is used to carry water from the dam to the power house. It includes
canal and penstock (closed pipe) or a tunnel. The penstock are made up of steel of reinforced concrete
which are designed to withstand high pressures. Penstock are supported by anchors. Sharp bends in
penstocks are avoided in order to reduce the hydraulic losses.
8. Spillway : A spillway is provided to discharge the flood water and to keep the level of water below the
designed maximum level in the reservoir . Thus a spillway saves the dam from damage during floods.
9. Power house : A power house consists of hydraulic and electric equipments where the water energy is
converted into electrical energy. Usually the power house is located underground whenever possible e.g. as
in case of Koyana power house in Maharashtra state.
10. Hydraulic turbines : These are used to convert the kinetic energy of water into mechanical energy.
11. Draft tube : A draft tube is a passage which connects the exit from the turbine runner down to tail race
water level. It supplements the action of runner of the reaction turbine by utilising the remainder K.E. of the
water at discharge end of the runner. Another purpose of the draft tube is to permit the setting of the
runner of the reaction turbine wheel at a level above that of water in the tail race under high water and
flood conditions of the river.
12. Tail race : A tail race is a water way to lead the water discharged from the turbine to the river.
Operation of hydro-electric power plant :
Water from reservoir flows through penstocks to hydraulic turbine and during the passage its
potential energy (water head) is converted into kinetic energy. This high velocity jet of water strikes
the hydraulic turbine vanes where its K.E. is converted into mechanical energy.
A generator coupled to hydraulic turbine converts the available mechanical energy into electrical
energy. The speed of the turbine and generator depends on the head, specific speed and the power.
The electrical power generated is controlled by the governing mechanism attached to hydraulic
turbine which controls the quantity of water to be supplied to the turbine according to the load on
the system.
Classification of Hydroelectric power plant: Hydroelectric power plants are usually classified
according to the available of head of water
• High head power plants; • Medium head power plants; • Low head power plants
High head power plants: When the operating head of water exceeds 70 meters, the plant is known
as High head power plant. Pelton wheel turbine is the prime mover used.
Medium head power plants: When the water ranges from 15 to 70 meters, then the power plant is
known as a Medium head power plant. It uses Francis Turbine.
Low head power plants: When the head is less than 15 meters, the plant is named as Low head
power plant. It uses Francis or Kaplan turbine as the prime mover.
Advantages of hydroelectric power plant
 The water source is perennially available. No fuel is required to be burnt to generate electricity. It is aptly termed as
‘the white coal’. Water passes through turbines to produce work and downstream its utility remains undiminished for
irrigation of farms and quenching the thirst of people in the vicinity.
 The running costs of hydropower installations are very low as compared to thermal or nuclear power stations. In
thermal stations, besides the cost of fuel, one has to take into account the transportation cost of the fuel also.
 There is no problem with regard to the disposal of ash as in a thermal station. The problem of emission of polluting
gases and particulates to the atmosphere also does not exist. Hydropower does not produce any greenhouse effect,
cause the pernicious acid rain and emit obnoxious NO.
 The hydraulic turbine can be switched on and off in a very short time. In a thermal or nuclear power plant the steam
turbine is put on turning gear for about two days during start-up and shut-down.
 The hydraulic power plant is relatively simple in concept and self-contained in operation. Its system reliability is much
greater than that of other power plants.
 Modern hydropower equipment has a greater life expectancy and can easily last 50 years or more. This can be
compared with an effective life of about 30 years of a thermal or nuclear station.
 Due to its great ease of taking up and throwing off the load, hydropower can be used as the ideal spinning reserve in
a system mix of thermal, hydro, and nuclear power stations.
 Modern hydro-generators give high efficiency over a considerable range of load. This helps in improving the system
efficiency.
 Hydro-plants provide ancillary benefits like irrigation, flood control, afforestation, navigation, and aqua-culture.
 Being simple in design and operation, the hydro-plants do not require highly skilled workers. Manpower requirement is also low.
Typical Layout & Working of A Thermal Power Plant
A simplified layout of a thermal power station is shown below.

Coal: In a coal based thermal power plant, coal is transported from coal mines to the generating station. Generally,
bituminous coal or brown coal is used as fuel.
The coal is stored in either 'dead storage' or in 'live storage'. Dead storage is generally 40 days backup coal storage which
is used when coal supply is unavailable.
Live storage is a raw coal bunker in boiler house. The coal is cleaned in a magnetic cleaner to filter out if any iron particles
are present which may cause wear and tear in the equipment. The coal from live storage is first crushed in small particles
and then taken into pulverizer to make it in powdered form.
Fine powdered coal undergoes complete combustion, and thus pulverized coal improves efficiency of the boiler. The ash
produced after the combustion of coal is taken out of the boiler furnace and then properly disposed. Periodic removal of
ash from the boiler furnace is necessary for the proper combustion.
Superheater: The superheater tubes are hanged at the hottest part of the boiler. The saturated steam produced in the
boiler tubes is superheated to about 540 °C in the superheater. The superheated high pressure steam is then fed to the
steam turbine.
Economizer: An economizer is essentially a feed water heater which heats the water before supplying to the boiler.
Air pre-heater: The primary air fan takes air from the atmosphere and it is then warmed in the air pre-heater. Pre-heated
air is injected with coal in the boiler. The advantage of pre-heating the air is that it improves the coal combustion.
Steam turbine: High pressure super heated steam is fed to the steam turbine which causes turbine blades to rotate.
Energy in the steam is converted into mechanical energy in the steam turbine which acts as the prime mover. The
pressure and temperature of the steam falls to a lower value and it expands in volume as it passes through the turbine.
The expanded low pressure steam is exhausted in the condenser.
Condenser: The exhausted steam is condensed in the condenser by means of cold water circulation. Here, the steam
loses it's pressure as well as temperature and it is converted back into water. Condensing is essential because,
compressing a fluid which is in gaseous state requires a huge amount of energy with respect to the energy required in
compressing liquid. Thus, condensing increases efficiency of the cycle.
Alternator: The steam turbine is coupled to an alternator. When the turbine rotates the alternator, electrical energy is
generated. This generated electrical voltage is then stepped up with the help of a transformer and then transmitted
where it is to be utilized.
Feed water pump: The condensed water is again fed to the boiler by a feed water pump. Some water may be lost during
the cycle, which is suitably supplied from an external water source.
This was the basic working principle of a thermal power station and its typical components. A practical thermal plant
possess more complicated design and multiple stages of turbine such as High Pressure Turbine (HPT), Intermediate
Pressure Turbine (IPT) and Low Pressure Turbine (LPT).
Advantages And Disadvantages Of A Thermal Power Plant
Advantages:
Less initial cost as compared to other generating stations.
It requires less land as compared to hydro power plant.
The fuel (i.e. coal) is cheaper.
The cost of generation is lesser than that of diesel power plants.
Disadvantages:
It pollutes the atmosphere due to the production of large amount of smoke. This is one of the causes of global warming.
The overall efficiency of a thermal power station is low (less than 30%).
Efficiency Of A Thermal Power Station
A huge amount of heat is lost in various stages of the plant. Major part of heat is lost in the condenser. That is why the
efficiency of thermal plants is quite low.
Thermal Efficiency: The ratio of 'heat equivalent of mechanical energy transmitted to the turbine shaft' to the 'heat of coal
combustion' is called as thermal efficiency.
Thermal efficiency of modern thermal power stations is about 30%. It means, if 100 calories of heat are produced by coal
combustion, the mechanical energy equivalent of 30 calories will be available at the turbine shaft.
Overall Efficiency: The ratio of 'heat equivalent of electrical output' to the 'heat of coal combustion' is called as overall
efficiency.
The overall efficiency of a thermal plant is about 29% (slightly less than the thermal efficiency).
• The working principle of nuclear power plant depends upon mainly four components.
[Link] Reactor; [Link] Exchanger; [Link] Turbine; [Link]
Nuclear reactor is used to produce heat and heat exchanger performs to convert water into steam by using the heat
generated in nuclear reactor.
This steam is fed into steam turbine and condensed in condenser. Now steam turbine is turn to run an electric
generator or alternator which is coupled to steam turbine and thereby producing electric energy.
This is a very basic working principle of Nuclear power plant. Here is the detail operation of the individual unit of this
plant. The block diagram of nuclear power plant shown in figure:-
1. Nuclear Reactor:- Nuclear reactor is the main component of nuclear power plant and nuclear fuel is subjected to nuclear fission. Nuclear fission is a process where a heavy
nucleus is spitted into two or more smaller nuclei. .
A heavy isotope generally uranium-235(U-235) is used as a nuclear fuel in the nuclear reactor because it has the ability to control the chain reaction in the nuclear reactor.
Nuclear fission is done by bombarding uranium nuclei with slow moving neutrons.
The energy released by the fission of nuclei is called nuclear fission energy or nuclear energy. By the braking of uranium atom, tremendous amount of heat energy and radiation is
formed in the reactor and the chain reaction is continuously running until it is controlled by a reactor control chain reaction.
A large amount of fission neutrons are removed in this process, only small amount of fission uranium is used to generate the electrical power.
• BLOCK DIAGRAM OF NUCLEAR REACTOR:

• The nuclear reactor is cylindrical type shape. Main body of reactor is enclosed by reactor core, reflector and thermal shielding.
• It prevent reactor wall from getting heated. It is also used to protect alpha ( α), bita (β) , gama (γ) rays and neutrons which are bounce back at
the time of fission within the reactor. Mainly Nuclear reactor consists, some fuel rods of uranium, moderator and control rods.
• Fuel rods are made of the fission materials and released large number of energy at the time of bombarding with slow moving neutrons.
Moderator consists full of graphite which is enclosed by the fuel rods. Moderator maintains the chain reaction by releasing the neutrons in a
suitable manner before they mixed with the fissile materials.
• Control rods are made of boron-10 and cadmium or hafnium which is a highly neutron absorber and it is inserted into the nuclear reactor.
When control rods are push down into the reactor core, it absorbs most of fission neutrons and power of the reactor is reduced.
• But when it is pulling out from the reactor, it releases the fission neutrons and power is increased. Real practice, this arrangement depends
upon according to the requirement of load. A coolant, basically sodium metal is used to reduce the heat produce in the reactor and it carries
2. Heat Exchanger:- Coolant is used to raise the heat of the heat exchanger
which is utilised in raising the steam. After that, it goes back to the reactor.

3. Steam Turbine:- Steam is coming from the heat exchanger to fed into the
steam turbine through the valve. After that the steam is exhausted to the
condenser. This condensed steam is fed to the heat exchanger through feed
water pump.

4. Alternator:- Steam turbine is coupled to an alternator which converts

mechanical energy to electrical energy. The output of alternator produces
electrical energy to bus bars via major electrical apparatus like transformer,
circuit breakers, isolators etc.
How does a Wind Turbine
Work?

Inside view of Wind Turbine Office of Energy Efficiency and Renewable Energy.
Anemometer: Measures the wind speed and transmits wind speed data to the controller.
Blades: Most turbines have either two or three blades. Wind blowing over the blades causes the
blades to "lift" and rotate.
Brake: A disc brake, which can be applied mechanically, electrically, or hydraulically to stop the rotor
in emergencies.
Controller: The controller starts up the machine at wind speeds of about 8 to 16 miles per hour
(mph) and shuts off the machine at about 55 mph. Turbines do not operate at wind speeds above
about 55 mph because they might be damaged by the high winds.
Gear box: Gears connect the low-speed shaft to the high-speed shaft and increase the rotational
speeds from about 30 to 60 rotations per minute (rpm) to about 1000 to 1800 rpm, the rotational
speed required by most generators to produce electricity. The gear box is a costly (and heavy) part
of the wind turbine and engineers are exploring "direct-drive" generators that operate at lower
rotational speeds and don't need gear boxes.
Generator: Usually an off-the-shelf induction generator that produces 60-cycle AC electricity. High-
speed shaft: Drives the generator. Low-speed shaft: The rotor turns the low-speed shaft at about 30
to 60 rotations per minute.
Nacelle: The nacelle sits atop the tower and contains the gear box, low- and high-speed shafts,
generator, controller, and brake. Some nacelles are large enough for a helicopter to land on.
Pitch: Blades are turned, or pitched, out of the wind to control the rotor speed and keep the rotor
from turning in winds that are too high or too low to produce electricity.
Rotor: The blades and the hub together are called the rotor.
Tower: Towers are made from tubular steel (shown here), concrete, or steel lattice. Because wind speed
increases with height, taller towers enable turbines to capture more energy and generate more electricity.
Wind direction: This is an "upwind" turbine, so-called because it operates facing into the wind. Other turbines
are designed to run "downwind," facing away from the wind.
Wind vane: Measures wind direction and communicates with the yaw drive to orient the turbine properly with
respect to the wind.
Yaw drive: Upwind turbines face into the wind; the yaw drive is used to keep the rotor facing into the wind as
the wind direction changes. Downwind turbines don't require a yaw drive, the wind blows the rotor downwind.
Yaw motor: Powers the yaw drive
Components of a Solar Electric Generating System

Solar Panels: The main part of a solar electric system is the solar panel.
There are various types of solar panel available in the market.
Solar panels are also known as photovoltaic solar panels.
Solar panel or solar module is basically an array of series and parallel connected solar cells.
The potential difference developed across a solar cell is about 0.5 volt and hence desired number of such cells to be connected in
series to achieve 14 to 18 volts to charge a standard battery of 12 volts.
Solar panels are connected together to create a solar array.
Multiple panels are connected together both in parallel and series to achieve higher current and higher voltage respectively.
Batteries: In grid-tie solar generation system, the solar modules are directly connected to an inverter, and are not connected
directly to the load itself. The power collected from the solar panels is not constant, but rather it varies with the intensity of the
sunlight shining on it. This is the reason why solar modules or panels do not feed any electrical equipment directly. Instead they
feed an inverter whose output is synchronized with external grid supply.
Controller: This is not desirable to overcharge and under discharge a lead acid battery. Both overcharging and under
discharging can badly damage the battery system. To avoid these both situations a controller is required to attach with the
system to maintain flow of current to and fro the batteries.
Inverter: It is obvious that the electricity produced in a solar panel is DC. Electricity we get from the grid supply is AC. So for
running common equipment from grid as well as solar system, it is required to install an inverter to convert DC of solar system
to AC of same level as grid supply.
In off grid system the inverter is directly connected across the battery terminals so that DC coming from the batteries is first
converted to AC then fed to the equipment. In grid tie system the solar panel is directly connected to inverter and this inverter
then feeds the grid with same voltage and frequency power.
Components of Stand Alone Solar System
A basic block diagram of a stand-alone solar electric system is show above. Here the electric power produced in the solar panel is first
supplied to the solar controller which in turn charges the battery bank or supplies directly to the low voltage DC equipment’s such as
laptops and LED lighting system. Normally the battery is fed from solar controller but it can also feed the solar controller when there is
insufficient supply of power from solar panel.
In this way the supply is continued uniformly to the low voltage equipment’s which are directly connected to the solar controller. In this
scheme the battery bank terminals are also connected across an inverter. The inverter converts the stored DC power of the battery bank
to high voltage AC for running larger electrical equipment’s such as washing machines, larger televisions and kitchen appliances etc.
Components of Grid Tie Solar System
Grid tie solar systems are of two types one with single macro central inverter and other with multiple micro inverters. In
the former type of solar system, the solar panels as well as grid supply are connected to a common central inverter called
grid tie inverter as shown below.
The inverter here converts the DC of the solar panel to grid level AC and then feeds to the grid as well as the consumer’s
distribution panel depending upon the instantaneous demand of the systems. Here grid-tie inverter also monitors the
power being supplied from the grid.
If it finds any power cut in the grid, it actuates switching system of the solar system to disconnect it from the grid to
ensure no solar electricity can be fed back to the grid during power cut. There is on energy meter connected in the main
grid supply line to record the energy export to the grid and energy import from the grid.
As we already told there is another type of grid-tie system where multiple micro-inverters are used. Here one micro
inverter is connected for each individual solar module. The basic block diagram of this system is very similar to previous
one except the micro inverters are connected together to produce desired high AC voltage.
In previous case the low direct voltage of solar panels is first converted to alternating voltage then it is transformed to
high alternating voltage by transformation action in the inverter itself but in this case the individual alternating output
voltage of micro inverters are added together to produce high alternating voltage.
Hence, to produce electrical power on a large scale, solar PV panels are used. In this article, we will explain details about
solar PV plants and PV panels. Below is the layout plan of photovoltaic power plant.
Demand Factor: The demand factor of an electric power station is defined as the ratio of maximum demand on the power station to its connected
load, i.e.,

Generally, the value of demand factor is less than 1. It is because the maximum demand on the power station is usually less than the connected
load to the power station. The knowledge of demand factor is important in determining the capacity of equipment of the power plant.
Numerical Example (1): A generating station has a connected load of 50 MW and a maximum demand of 30 MW. Determine the demand factor of
the power station.
Solutions:;
Load Factor: The load factor of a power station is defined as the ratio of average load to the maximum demand on the power station during a given
period, i.e.,

If the power station is in operation for T hours, then the load factor is given by,
;
The load factor can be daily load factor, monthly load factor or annual load factor if the time period (T) considered is a day or a month or a year
respectively.
The load factor of a power station is always less than 1. It is because the average load on the power station is smaller than the maximum demand.
The load factor is very important because it is used to determine the overall cost per unit generated, i.e., if the load factor of the power station is
higher, then the cost per unit generated will be lesser.
Numerical Example (2):The maximum demand on a power generating plant is 2000 kW. If the number of units (in kWh) generated per year is 50 ☓
104. Determine the annual load factor of the plant.
Solution: The load factor of the power station is given by,
;
Diversity Factor: The diversity factor of the power station is defined as the ratio of sum of individual maximum demands to the maximum demand
on the power station, i.e.,

Numerical Example (3): A diesel power plant supplies the following loads to various consumers : Domestic light = 500 kW; Domestic power = 100
kW; Industrial consumers = 2000 kW; Commercial establishments = 700 kW; If the maximum demand on the power station is 3000 kW. Determine
the diversity factor of the power plant.
Load Curves: The graph which shows the variation of load on the power station with respect to time is called the load curve of
the power station.
The load on a power station does not remain constant; it changes from time to time. These changes in the load on a power
station during whole day (i.e. for 24 hours) are recorded half-hourly or hourly and are plotted with respect to time on the graph.
The obtained graph is called the daily load curve of the power plant.
The daily load curve shows the variation of load with respect to time during the day. A typical daily load curve of a power station
is shown in the figure. From the figure, it can be seen that the load on the power station is varying and being maximum at 6 pm.
The monthly load curve of the power station can be obtained from the daily load curves of that month. In order to plot the
monthly load curve, average values of power over a month at different times of the day are calculated and then plotted on the
graph. The monthly load curve of power station is mainly used to fix the rates of energy.
The yearly load curve can be obtained from the monthly load curves of that year. To plot the monthly load curves, average values
of power over the year are calculated and then plotted on the graph. The yearly load curve is generally used to determine the
annual load factor of the power station.
• Importance of Load Curves
• Load curves are very important in generation of electrical power because they provide the following information −
• The daily load curve shows the variation in the load on the power plant during the different hours of the day.
• The peak point on the daily load curve represents the maximum demand on the power station on that day.
• The load curves help in selecting the size and the number of generating units of the power station.
• The load curves help in preparing the operation schedule of the power station. That means, to determine the sequence and
time for which the various generating units in the power station will be put in operation.
• The area under the daily load curve represents the number of units generated on that day, i.e.,
• Units generated per day = Area (in kWh) under the daily load curve
• The ratio of area under the daily load curve and the total number of hours gives the average load on the power station on that
day, i.e.

The area under the load curve divided by the total area of the rectangle in which it is contained gives the load factor of the power station, i.e.,
What is Power Factor?: In electrical engineering, the power factor (PF) of an AC electrical power system is defined as the ratio of working power (measured in kilowatts, kW)
absorbed by the load to the apparent power (measured in kilovolt amperes, kVA) flowing through the circuit. Power factor is a dimensionless number in the closed interval of
−1 to 1.
• The “ideal” power factor is one (also referred to as “unity”). This is when there is no reactive power through the circuit, and hence apparent power (kVA) is equal to real
power (kW). A load with a power factor of 1 is the most efficient loading of the supply.
• That said this is not realistic, and the power factor will in practice be less than 1. Various power factor correction techniques are used to help increase the power factor to
this ideal state.
• To help explain this better, let’s take a step back and talk about what power is.
Power is the capacity to do work. In the electrical domain, electrical power is the amount of electrical energy that can be transferred to some other form (heat, light, etc) per
unit of time.
• Mathematically power factor is the product of voltage drop across the element and current flowing through it.
• Considering first the DC circuits, having only DC voltage sources, the inductors and capacitors behave as short circuits and open circuits respectively in steady-state.
• Hence the entire circuit behaves as a resistive circuit and the entire electrical power is dissipated in the form of heat. Here the voltage and current are in the same phase
and the total electrical power is given by:
Now coming to the AC circuit, here both inductor and capacitor offer a certain amount of impedance given by:
The inductor stores electrical energy in the form of magnetic energy and the capacitor stores electrical energy in the form of electrostatic energy. Neither of them dissipates it.
Further, there is a phase shift between voltage and current.
Hence when we consider the entire circuit consisting of a resistor, inductor, and capacitor, there exists some phase difference between the source voltage and current.
The cosine of this phase difference is called the electrical power factor. This factor (-1 < cosφ < 1 ) represents the fraction of the total power that is used to do the useful work.
The other fraction of electrical power is stored in the form of magnetic energy or electrostatic energy in the inductor and capacitor respectively.
The total power in this case is:
This is called apparent power and its unit is VA (Volt-Amp) and denoted by ‘S’. A fraction of this total electrical power that does our useful work is called active power. We
denote it as ‘P’.
P = Active power = Total electrical [Link]φ and its unit is watt.
The other fraction of power is called reactive power. Reactive power does no useful work, but it is required for the active work to be done.
We denote it with ‘Q’ and mathematically is given by:
Q = Reactive power = Total electrical [Link]φ and its unit is VAR (Volt-Amp Reactive).
This reactive power oscillates between source and load.
To help understand this better all these power are represented in the form of a triangle.
Power Factor Triangle
• Mathematically, S2 = P2 + Q2, and the electrical power factor is active power / apparent power.
Power Factor Improvement: The term power factor comes into the picture in AC circuits only. Mathematically it is the cosine of the phase
difference between the source voltage and current. It refers to the fraction of total power (apparent power) which is utilized to do the useful
work called active power.
Need for Power Factor Improvement
• Real power is given by P = VIcosφ. The electrical current is inversely proportional to cosφ for transferring a given amount of power at a certain voltage.
Hence higher the pf lower will be the current flowing. A small current flow requires a less cross-sectional area of conductors, and thus it saves conductors
and money.
• From the above relation, we see having a poor power factor increases the current flowing in a conductor, and thus copper loss increases. A large voltage
drop occurs in the alternator, electrical transformer, and transmission, and distribution lines – which gives very poor voltage regulation.
• The KVA rating of machines is also reduced by having a higher power factor, as per the formula:
• Methods of Power Factor Improvement
• There are three main ways to improve power factor:
• Capacitor Banks; Synchronous Condensers; Phase Advancers
• Capacitor Banks: Improving power factor means reducing the phase difference between voltage and current. Since the majority of loads are of inductive
nature, they require some amount of reactive power for them to function.
• A capacitor or bank of capacitors installed parallel to the load provides this reactive power. They act as a source of local reactive power, and thus less reactive
power flows through the line.
• Capacitor banks reduce the phase difference between the voltage and current.
• Synchronous Condensers: Synchronous condensers are 3 phase synchronous motors with no load attached to their shaft.
• The synchronous motor has the characteristics of operating under any power factor leading, lagging, or unity depending upon the excitation. For inductive
loads, a synchronous condenser is connected towards the load side and is overexcited.
• Synchronous condensers make it behave like a capacitor. It draws the lagging current from the supply or supplies the reactive power.
• Phase Advancers: This is an AC exciter mainly used to improve the PF of an induction motor.
• They are mounted on the shaft of the motor and are connected to the rotor circuit of the motor. It improves the power factor by providing the exciting
ampere turns to produce the required flux at the given slip frequency.
• Further, if ampere-turns increase, it can be made to operate at the leading power factor.
• Power Factor Calculation: In power factor calculation, we measure the source voltage and current drawn using a voltmeter and ammeter respectively. A
Hence, we can get the electrical power factor. Now we can calculate the reactive power Q = VIsinφ VAR
This reactive power can now be supplied from the capacitor installed in parallel with the load in local. The reactive power of a capacitor
can be calculated using the following formula:
• Power Factor Definitions and Formulas

• In electrical engineering, power factor is only and only related to AC circuits i.e. there is no power factor (P.f) in DC circuits due to
zero frequency and phase angle difference (Φ) between current and voltage.
What is Power Factor?
1). The Cosine of angle between Current and Voltage is called Power Factor.
P = VI Cosθ OR Cosθ = P ÷ V I OR Cosθ = kW ÷ kVA OR Cosθ = True Power ÷ Apparent Power
Where: P = Power in Watts; V = Voltages in Volts; I = Current in Amperes; W = Real Power in Watts; VA = Apparent Power in Volt-Amperes
or kVA
Cosθ = Power factor
2). The ratio between Resistance and Impedance in AC Circuit is known as Power Factor.
• Cosθ = R ÷ Z
• Where: R = Resistance in Ohms (Ω); Z = Impedance (Resistance in AC circuits i.e. XL, XC and R known as Inductive reactance, capacitive
reactance and resistance respectively) in Ohms (Ω); Cosθ = Power factor
• Impedance “Z” is the total resistance of AC Circuit i.e. Z = √ [R2 + (XL + XC)2]
• Where: XL = 2πfL … L is inductance in Henry; XC = 1 ÷ 2πfC … C is capacitance in Farads
• Related Post: Difference Between Active and Reactive Power
• 3).The ratio between Active Power and Apparent Power in volts-amperes is called power factor.
• Cosθ = Active Power ÷ Apparent Power; Cosθ = P ÷ S; Cosθ = kW ÷ kVA
• Where: kW = P = Real Power in kilo-Watts; kVA = S = Apparent Power in kilo-Volt-Amperes or Watts; Cosθ = Power factor
• Power Factor Formula in Three Phase AC Circuits
• Power Factor Cosθ = P ÷ √3 VL × IL… Line Current & Voltage
Example: 1: A 3 Phase, 5 kW Induction Motor has a P.F (Power factor) of 0.75 lagging. What size of Capacitor in kVAR is required to improve
the P.F (Power Factor) to 0.90?
Solution #1 (Simple Method using the Table Multiplier)
Motor Input = 5kW; From Table, Multiplier to improve PF from 0.75 to 0.90 is 0.398; Required Capacitor kVAR to improve P.F from 0.75 to 0.90
Required Capacitor kVAR = kW x Table 1 Multiplier of 0.75 and 0.90== 5kW x 0.398= = 1.99 kVAR
And Rating of Capacitors connected in each Phase= = 1.99kVAR / 3= = 0.663 kVAR
Solution # 2 (Classic Calculation Method)
Motor input = P = 5 kW; Original P.F = Cosθ 1 = 0.75; Final P.F = Cosθ2 = 0.90
θ1 = Cos-1 = (0.75) = 41°.41; Tan θ1 = Tan (41°.41) = 0.8819; θ2 = Cos-1 = (0.90) = 25°.84; Tan θ2 = Tan (25°.50) = 0.4843
Required Capacitor kVAR to improve P.F from 0.75 to 0.90; Required Capacitor kVAR = P (Tan θ 1 – Tan θ2)= 5kW (0.8819 – 0.4843)= 1.99 kVAR
And Rating of Capacitors connected in each Phase ; 1.99 kVAR / 3 = 0.663 kVAR
Note: Tables for Capacitor Sizing in kVAr and microfarads for PF Correction

The following tables (given at the end of this post) have been prepared to simplify kVAR calculation for power factor improvement. The size of
capacitor in kVAR is the kW multiplied by factor in table to improve from existing power factor to proposed power factor. Check the others
solved examples below.
Example 2: An Alternator is supplying a load of 650 kW at a P.F (Power factor) of 0.65. What size of Capacitor in kVAR
is required to raise the P.F (Power Factor) to unity (1)? And how many more kW can the alternator supply for the same
kVA loading when P.F improved.
Solution #1 (Simple Table Method using Table Multiple)
Supplying kW = 650 kW; From Table 1, Multiplier to improve PF from 0.65 to unity (1) is 1.169; Required Capacitor kVAR
to improve P.F from 0.65 to unity (1).
Required Capacitor kVAR = kW x Table 1 Multiplier of 0.65 and 1.0 = 650kW x 1.169 = 759.85 kVAR
We know that P.F = Cosθ = kW/kVA . . .or kVA = kW / Cosθ = 650/0.65 = 1000 kVA; When Power Factor is raised to unity
(1)
No of kW = kVA x Cosθ = 1000 x 1 = 1000kW
Hence increased Power supplied by Alternator; 1000kW – 650kW = 350kW
Solution # 2 (Classic Calculation Method)
Supplying kW = 650 kW; Original P.F = Cosθ 1 = 0.65; Final P.F = Cosθ2 = 1
θ1 = Cos-1 = (0.65) = 49°.45; Tan θ1 = Tan (41°.24) = 1.169; θ2 = Cos-1 = (1) = 0°; Tan θ2 = Tan (0°) = 0
Required Capacitor kVAR to improve P.F from 0.75 to 0.90; Required Capacitor kVAR = P (Tan θ 1 – Tan θ2) = 650kW (1.169–
0) = 759.85 kVAR
How to Calculate the Capacitor Value in Microfarad & kVAR?
The following methods show that how to determine the required capacitor bank value in both kVAR and Micro-Farads.
In addition, the solved examples also show that how to convert the capacity of a capacitor in microfarad to kVAR and
kVAR to microfarad for P.F. This way, a right size capacitor bank can be installed in parallel to each phase load side to
obtain the targeted power factor.
Solution # 2 (Classic Calculation Method)
Supplying kW = 650 kW; Original P.F = Cosθ1 = 0.65; Final P.F = Cosθ2 = 1
θ1 = Cos-1 = (0.65) = 49°.45; Tan θ1 = Tan (41°.24) = 1.169; θ2 = Cos-1 = (1) = 0°; Tan θ2 = Tan (0°) = 0
Required Capacitor kVAR to improve P.F from 0.75 to 0.90; Required Capacitor kVAR = P (Tan θ 1 – Tan θ2) = 650kW (1.169– 0) = 759.85
kVAR
How to Calculate the Capacitor Value in Microfarad & kVAR?
The following methods show that how to determine the required capacitor bank value in both kVAR and Micro-Farads. In addition, the
solved examples also show that how to convert the capacity of a capacitor in microfarad to kVAR and kVAR to microfarad for P.F. This
way, a right size capacitor bank can be installed in parallel to each phase load side to obtain the targeted power factor.
Example: 3
A 500 volts 60 c/s single phase motor takes a full load current of 50 amp at P.F 0.86 lagging. The motor power factor has to be
improved to 0.94 by connecting capacitor bank across it. Calculate the required capacity of capacitor in both kVAR and μ-Farads?
• Solution:
(1) To find the required capacity of Capacitance in kVAR to improve P.F from 0.86 to 0.94 (Two Methods)
Solution #1 (Table Method)
Motor Input = P = V x I x Cosθ = 500V x 50A x 0.86 = 21.5kW
From Table, Multiplier to improve PF from 0.86 to 0.94 is 0.230
Required Capacitor kVAR to improve P.F from 0.86 to 0.94
Required Capacitor kVAR = kW x Table Multiplier of 0.86 and 0.94
= 21.5kW x 0.230 = 4.9 kVAR
Solution # 2 (Calculation Method)
Motor Input = P = V x I x Cosθ = 500V x 50A x 0.86 = 21.5kW; Actual or existing P.F = Cosθ 1 = 0.86
Required or target P.F = Cosθ2 = 0.94; θ1 = Cos-1 = (0.86) = 30.68°; Tan θ1 = Tan (30.68°) = 0.593
θ2 = Cos-1 = (0.95) = 19.94°; Tan θ2 = Tan (19.94°) = 0.363; Required Capacitor kVAR to improve P.F from 0.86 to 0.95
Required Capacitor kVAR = P in kW (Tan θ – Tan θ ) = 21.5kW (0.593 – 0.363)= = 4.954 kVAR
(2) To find the required capacity of Capacitance in Farads to improve P.F from 0.86 to 0.97 (Two Methods)
Solution #1 (Table Method)
We have already calculated the required Capacity of Capacitor in kVAR, so we can easily convert it into Farads by using this simple formula
Required Capacity of Capacitor in Farads/Microfarads
C = kVAR / (2π x f x V2) in Farad ; C = kVAR x 109 / (2π x f x V2) in Microfarad
Putting the Values in the above formula = (4.954 kVAR) / (2 x π x 60Hz x 5002V) = 52.56 μF
Solution # 2 (Calculation Method)
kVAR = 4.954 … (i)
We know that; IC = V / XC; Whereas XC = 1 / 2π x f x C; IC = V / (1 / 2π x f x C) = V x 2π x f x C = (500V) x 2π x (60Hz) x C IC = 188495.5 x C
And,
kVAR = (V x IC) / 1000 … [kVAR = ( V x I) / 1000 ] = 500V x 188495.5 x C IC = 94247750 x C … (ii)
Equating Equation (i) & (ii), we get, 94247750 x C = 4.954 kVAR x C=C = 4.954 kVAR / 94247750 = 78.2 μF
Example 4: What value of Capacitance must be connected in parallel with a load drawing 1kW at 70% lagging power factor from a 208V, 60Hz Source in
order to raise the overall power factor to 91%.
Solution:
You can use either Table method or Simple Calculation method to find the required value of Capacitance in Farads or kVAR to improve Power factor from
0.71 to 0.97. So We used the table method in this case.
P = 1000W; Actual Power factor = Cosθ1 = 0.71; Desired Power factor = Cosθ2 = 0.97; From Table, Multiplier to improve PF from 0.71 to 0.97 is 0.741
Required Capacitor kVAR to improve P.F from 0.71 to 0.97; Required Capacitor kVAR = kW x Table Multiplier of 0.71 and 0.97 = 1kW x 0.741
= 741 VAR or 0.741 kVAR (required Capacitance Value in kVAR)
Current in the Capacitor = IC = QC / V = 741kVAR / 208V = 3.56A And XC = V / IC = 208V / 3.76 = 58.42Ω
C = 1/ (2π x f x XC)= 1 (2π x 60Hz x 58.42Ω)= 45.4 μF (required Capacitance Value in Farads)
Capacitor kVAR to μ-Farad & μ-Farad to kVAR Conversion
The following formulas are used to calculate and convert capacitor kVAR to Farads and Vice Versa.
Convert Capacitor Farads & Microfarads in VAR, kVAR and MVAR.
VAR = C x 2π x f x V2x 10-6 … VAR; VAR = C in μF x f x V2 / (159.155 x 103)… in VAR; kVAR = C x 2π x f x V2 x 10-9 …in kVAR; kVAR = C in μF x f x V2 ÷ (159.155 x 106) … in kVAR
MVAR = C x 2π x f x V2 x 10-12 … in MVAR; MVAR = C in μF x f x V2 ÷ (159.155 x 109) … in MVAR
Required Capacitor in Farads/Microfarads. Convert Capacitor kVAR in Farads & Microfarads
C = kVAR x 103 / 2π x f x V2 … in Farad; C = 159.155 x Q in kVAR / f x V2 … in Farad; C = kVAR x 109 / (2π x f x V2) … in Microfarad; C = 159.155 x 106 x Q in kVAR / f x V2 …in Microfarad
Where: C = Capacitance in Microfarad; Q = Reactive Power in Volt-Amp-Reactive; f = Frequency in Hertz; V = Voltage in Volts
Good to Know: Following are the important electrical formulas used in Power factor improvement calculation.
Active Power (P) in Watts:
kW = kVA x Cosθ; kW = HP x 0.746 or (HP x 0.746) / Efficiency … (HP = Motor Horse Power); kW = √ ( kVA 2 – kVAR2); kW = P = V x I Cosθ … (Single Phase)
kW = P = √3x V x I Cosθ … (Three Phase Line to Line); kW = P = 3x V x I Cosθ … (Three Phase Line to Phase)
Apparent Power (S) in VA:
kVA = √(kW2 + kVAR2); kVA = kW / Cosθ; Reactive Power (Q) in VA: kVAR = √(kVA2 – kW2); kVAR = C x (2π x f x V2)
Power Factor (from 0.1 to 1)
Power Factor = Cosθ = P / V I … (Single Phase)
Power Factor = Cosθ = P / (√3x V x I) … (Three Phase Line to Line); Power Factor = Cosθ = P / (3x V x I) … (Three Phase Line to Neutral)
Power Factor = Cosθ = kW / kVA … (Both Single Phase & Three Phase); Power Factor = Cosθ = R/Z … (Resistance / Impedance) And

XC = 1 / (2π x f x C) … (XC = Capacitive reactance); IC = V / XC … (I = V / R)

Advantages of Power factor improvement and Correction:

Following are the merits and benefits of improvedPower factor;
Increase in efficiency of system and devices; Low Voltage Drop; Reduction in size of a conductor and cable which reduces cost of the Cooper; An Increase in available power
Line Losses (Copper Losses) I2R is reduced; Appropriate Size of Electrical Machines (Transformer, Generators etc); Eliminate the penalty of low power factor from the Electric Supply Company
Low kWh (Kilo Watt per hour); Saving in the power bill; Better usage of power system, lines and generators etc; Saving in energy as well as rating and the cost of the electrical devices and equipment is reduced