Computer Network

Module1 Part2
BK
Physical Layer in OSI Model

• Physical layer in the OSI model plays the role of

interacting with actual hardware and signaling
mechanism.
• Physical layer is the only layer of OSI network model
which actually deals with the physical connectivity of two
different stations.
• This layer defines the hardware equipment, cabling,
wiring, frequencies, pulses used to represent binary
signals etc.
Physical Layer in OSI Model
• Physical layer provides its services to Data-link layer.
Data-link layer hands over frames to physical layer.
• Physical layer converts them to electrical pulses, which
represent binary data.
• The binary data is then sent over the wired or wireless
media.
Signals

• When data is sent over physical medium, it needs to be

first converted into electromagnetic signals.
• Data itself can be analog such as human voice, or digital
such as file on the disk.
• Both analog and digital data can be represented in digital
or analog signals.
Types of Signal

• A signal is nothing but an electrical quantity like voltage,

current, or electromagnetic wave used for conveying
information from one point to another.
• Depending on the nature, signals are classified into the
following two types −

– Analog Signals
– Digital Signals
Analog Signals

• Signals that have continuous variation over time and are

represented using smooth, uninterrupted waveforms are
referred to as analog signals.
• Analog signals are also referred to as continuous-time
signals. Examples of analog signals include radio waves,
alternating current, speed, pressure, voice signals, etc.
Digital Signals

A digital signal is a signal that represents data as a

sequence of discrete values; at any given time it can only
take on, at most, one of a finite number of values.
This contrasts with an analog signal, which represents
continuous values; at any given time it represents a real
number within an infinite set of values.
• Data or information can be stored in two ways, analog
and digital. For a computer to use the data, it must be in
discrete digital form.

• Similar to data, signals can also be in analog and digital

form. To transmit data digitally, it needs to be first
converted to digital form.
Analog-to-Digital Conversion
• Microphones create analog voice and camera creates
analog videos, which are treated is analog data. To
transmit this analog data over digital signals, we need
analog to digital conversion.

• Analog data is a continuous stream of data in the wave

form whereas digital data is discrete. To convert analog
wave into digital data, we use Pulse Code Modulation
(PCM).
• PCM is one of the most commonly used method to
convert analog data into digital form.

• It involves three steps:

1. Sampling
2. Quantization
3. Encoding.
Sampling

• The analog signal is sampled every T interval. Most

important factor in sampling is the rate at which analog
signal is sampled. According to Nyquist Theorem, the
sampling rate must be at least two times of the highest
frequency of the signal.
Quantization

Sampling yields discrete form of continuous analog signal. Every discrete

pattern shows the amplitude of the analog signal at that instance. The
quantization is done between the maximum amplitude value and the minimum
amplitude value. Quantization is approximation of the instantaneous analog
value.
Encoding
• In encoding, each approximated value is then converted
into binary format.
Digital-to-Analog Conversion
• When data from one computer is sent to another via
some analog carrier, it is first converted into analog
signals. Analog signals are modified to reflect digital data.

• An analog signal is characterized by its amplitude,

frequency, and phase. There are three kinds of digital-to-
analog conversions:
Amplitude Shift Keying

• Amplitude Shift Keying is a technique in which carrier signal is

analog and data to be modulated is digital.
• The amplitude of analog carrier signal is modified to reflect
binary data. The binary signal when modulated gives a zero
value when the binary data represents 0 while gives the carrier
output when data is 1.
• When binary data represents digit 1, the amplitude is
held; otherwise it is set to 0.
• The frequency and phase of the carrier signal remain constant.
Advantages of amplitude shift Keying -

• It can be used to transmit digital data over optical fiber.

• The receiver and transmitter have a simple design which also makes
it comparatively inexpensive.
• It uses lesser bandwidth as compared to FSK thus it offers high
bandwidth efficiency.

Disadvantages of amplitude shift Keying -

• It is susceptible to noise interference and entire transmissions could

be lost due to this.
• It has lower power efficiency.
Frequency Shift Keying
• In this conversion technique, the frequency of the analog
carrier signal is modified to reflect binary data.
• In this modulation the frequency of analog carrier signal
is modified to reflect binary data. The output of a
frequency shift keying modulated wave is high in
frequency for a binary high input and is low in frequency
for a binary low input. The amplitude and phase of the
carrier signal remain constant.
• This technique uses two frequencies, f1 and f2. One of
them, for example f1, is chosen to represent binary digit
1 and the other one is used to represent binary digit 0.
Both amplitude and phase of the carrier wave are kept
intact.
Advantages of frequency shift Keying -

• Frequency shift keying modulated signal can help avoid the noise problems
beset by ASK.
• It has lower chances of an error.
• It provides high signal to noise ratio.
• The transmitter and receiver implementations are simple for low data rate
application.

Disadvantages of frequency shift Keying -

• It uses larger bandwidth as compared to ASK thus it offers less bandwidth

efficiency.
• It has lower power efficiency.
Phase Shift Keying
• In this conversion scheme, the phase of the original
carrier signal is altered to reflect the binary data.

When a new binary symbol is encountered, the phase of the signal is

altered. Amplitude and frequency of the original carrier signal is kept
intact.
Advantages of phase shift Keying -

• It is a more power efficient modulation technique as compared to ASK

and FSK.
• It has lower chances of an error.
• It allows data to be carried along a communication signal much more
efficiently as compared to FSK.

Disadvantages of phase shift Keying -

• It offers low bandwidth efficiency.

• The detection and recovery algorithms of binary data is very complex.
• It is a non coherent reference signal.
Quadrature Phase Shift Keying
• QPSK alters the phase to reflect two binary digits at once.
This is done in two different phases.
• The main stream of binary data is divided equally into two
sub-streams.
• The serial data is converted in to parallel in both sub-
streams and then each stream is converted to digital
signal using NRZ technique. Later, both the digital signals
are merged together.
Transmission Media
Guided Media
• Guided Media also known as wired or bounded
transmission media, refers to transmission media in which
data signals are transmitted through a physical path using
cables.
• The signal is confined and guided along a fixed route,
providing controlled communication between network
devices.

• Uses physical cables to transmit data signals.

• Provides dedicated and well-defined transmission paths.
• Major types of guided media included
– Twisted Pair Cables,
– Coaxial Cables
– Optical Fiber Cables.
• Offers higher data transmission rates compared to
most wireless media.
• Provides better security due to physical connectivity
and limited signal leakage.
• Suitable for short to long-distance communication,
depending on the cable type used.
1. Twisted Pair Cable
• A twisted pair cable consists of two individually insulated
copper conductors twisted together in a helical pattern to
minimize electromagnetic interference (EMI) and
crosstalk between adjacent pairs.
• Multiple twisted pairs are typically enclosed within a
protective outer sheath, making this cable one of the most
commonly used and cost-effective guided transmission
media.
• Twisting of conductors helps reduce interference and
signal degradation.
• Multiple pairs can be bundled together within a single
cable.
• Widely used due to low cost, flexibility, and ease of
installation.
• Commonly used in telephone systems and local area
networks (LANs).
(a) Unshielded Twisted Pair (UTP)
• UTP cable consists of twisted copper wire pairs without
any additional metallic shielding. The twisting provides
basic protection against interference, making UTP
suitable for environments with moderate noise levels.
Advantages:

• Least expensive among guided transmission media.

• Easy to install and maintain due to its lightweight and
flexible nature.
• Supports high data transmission rates over short
distances.
• Widely used in Ethernet-based LANs and telephone
networks.
Disadvantages:

• Lower performance and capacity compared to Shielded

Twisted Pair (STP).
• Limited transmission distance due to signal attenuation.
• More susceptible to noise and electromagnetic
interference.
(b) Shielded Twisted Pair (STP)
• Shielded Twisted Pair (STP) cable consists of twisted
pairs of insulated copper conductors enclosed within an
additional metallic shielding layer, such as a foil or braided
shield.
• This shielding provides enhanced protection against
external electromagnetic interference (EMI) and reduces
crosstalk, resulting in more stable and reliable data
transmission.
• Advantages
• Provides better performance at higher data transmission
rates compared to UTP.
• Significantly reduces electromagnetic interference and
crosstalk.
• Ensures more reliable and stable communication, especially
in noisy environments.
• Suitable for high-speed Ethernet networks and voice and
data transmission systems.
Disadvantages

• Higher cost compared to Unshielded Twisted Pair (UTP).

• More complex installation and termination due to shielding
requirements.
• Bulkier and less flexible, making cable management more
difficult.
2. Coaxial Cable
• Coaxial Cable consists of a central copper conductor
surrounded by a dielectric insulating layer, a metallic
shielding layer, and an outer protective jacket.
• This structure allows signals to be transmitted with better
protection against noise and interference compared to
twisted pair cables.
• Supports data transmission in both baseband mode (single
channel) and broadband mode (multiple channels).
• Provides higher bandwidth than twisted pair cables.
• Strong shielding makes it more resistant to noise, crosstalk,
and electromagnetic interference (EMI).
• Commonly used in cable television (CATV), broadband
networks, and analog television systems.
• More durable and reliable due to its layered construction.
• Easier to install and maintain compared to optical fiber
cables.
Advantages:

• Supports higher bandwidth than twisted pair cables.

• Offers better signal quality and reliability.
• Allows multiple channels using frequency division
multiplexing (FDM).
• Less affected by external electromagnetic interference.
Disadvantages:

• More expensive than twisted pair cables.

• Requires proper grounding to ensure safety and minimize
interference.
• Bulkier and less flexible due to multiple layers.
• More vulnerable to security breaches, as the cable can be
physically tapped.
3. Optical Fiber Cable
• Optical Fiber Cable is a guided transmission medium that
transmits data in the form of light signals through a glass
or plastic core using the principle of total internal
reflection.
• The core is surrounded by a cladding layer with a lower
refractive index, which confines the light within the core
and enables high-speed, long-distance data transmission.
• Supports very large data volumes at extremely high
speeds.
• Can operate in unidirectional or bidirectional
communication modes.
• WDM (Wavelength Division Multiplexer) allows multiple
light signals to be transmitted simultaneously over a single
fiber.
• Widely used where high bandwidth, long distance, and low
signal loss are required.
Advantages:

• Provides very high bandwidth and data-carrying capacity.

• Lightweight and compact, making installation easier over
long distances.
• Exhibits low signal attenuation, suitable for long-distance
communication.
• Immune to electromagnetic interference (EMI) and
electrical noise.
• Resistant to corrosion and harsh environmental conditions.
Disadvantages:
• Complex installation and maintenance due to precise
splicing and handling requirements.
• High initial installation and equipment cost.
• Fragile compared to copper cables and requires careful
handling.
Applications:

• Medical: Used in endoscopy, imaging systems, and laser-

based surgical procedures.
• Defense and Aerospace: Supports secure, high-speed,
and interference-free communication.
• Communication: Widely used in internet backbone
networks, undersea cables, and telecommunication
systems.
• Industrial and Automotive: Used for sensing, lighting, data
communication, and safety systems.
Unguided Media
• Unguided media, also known as wireless or Unbounded
transmission media , uses electromagnetic waves to
transmit data without any physical medium.
• Signals propagate through free space such as air or
vacuum.
• The main types of unguided media are radio waves,
microwaves, and infrared waves.
Features:

• Signals propagate through air or free space

• Less secure due to broadcast nature
• Suitable for long-distance communication
1. Radio Waves
• Radio waves are a type of electromagnetic wave that can
easily be generated and can propagate through buildings
and other obstacles. They do not require line-of-sight
between transmitting and receiving antennas, making
them highly suitable for broadcast communication and
wireless data transmission.

• Frequency Range:
• 3 kHz – 300 GHz
Applications:
• AM and FM radio broadcasting, television transmission,
cordless phones, and wireless communication.

Types of Radio Waves:

• Shortwave: AM radio broadcasting

• VHF (Very High Frequency): FM radio and television
• UHF (Ultra High Frequency): Television and mobile
communication
Components:
• Transmitter: Generates and modulates the signal
• Receiver: Receives and demodulates the signal
2. Microwaves
• Micro waves are a form of unguided transmission media
that use line-of-sight communication, where the
transmitting and receiving antennas must be properly
aligned. The transmission range depends on the height of
the antennas. Microwaves operate in the frequency range
of 1 GHz to 300 GHz and are widely used in mobile
communication, satellite links, and television distribution.
Advantages:
• Cost-effective compared to laying physical cables
• No need for land acquisition
• Suitable for communication over difficult terrains and
oceans
• Supports high data transmission rates
Disadvantages:
• Less secure without proper encryption
• Susceptible to weather conditions such as rain and fog
• Affected by obstacles due to line-of-sight requirement
• High cost of antenna design, installation, and
maintenance
2. Microwaves
• Micro waves are a form of unguided transmission media
that use line-of-sight communication, where the
transmitting and receiving antennas must be properly
aligned.
• The transmission range depends on the height of the
antennas. Microwaves operate in the frequency range of
1 GHz to 300 GHz and are widely used in mobile
communication, satellite links, and television distribution.
Advantages:

• Cost-effective compared to laying physical cables

• No need for land acquisition
• Suitable for communication over difficult terrains and
oceans
• Supports high data transmission rates
• Disadvantages:

• Less secure without proper encryption

• Susceptible to weather conditions such as rain and fog
• Affected by obstacles due to line-of-sight requirement
• High cost of antenna design, installation, and maintenance
3. Infrared
• Infrared waves are used for short-range wireless
communication and operate in the frequency range of 300
GHz to 400 THz.
• They cannot penetrate solid obstacles, which limits their
range but helps minimize interference between nearby
systems. Infrared waves are commonly used in TV
remote controls, wireless keyboards, mice, and printers.
Difference Between Radio Waves, Micro Waves, and
Infrared Waves
Radio Waves Microwaves Infrared Waves

Omnidirectional in nature Highly directional Directional, requires line of sight (LOS)

Can penetrate buildings and obstacles easily due to

Poor penetration; line of sight required Cannot penetrate obstacles
low frequency

Frequency range: 3 kHz – 300 GHz Frequency range: 1 GHz – 300 GHz Frequency range: 300 GHz – 400 THz

Low security Medium security (encryption possible) Relatively high security but limited range

Moderate attenuation Variable attenuation, depends on weather conditions High attenuation

Most frequency bands are licensed by the

Some frequency bands require government licensing Generally unlicensed
government

Low to moderate cost High cost Low cost

Supports long-distance communication Supports long-distance communication Suitable only for very short-distance communication
MULTIPLEXING
Multiplexing
• Multiplexing is the process of combining multiple
signals into one signal, over a shared medium.
• If analog signals are multiplexed, it is Analog
Multiplexing and if digital signals are multiplexed, that
process is Digital Multiplexing.
• The process of multiplexing divides a communication
channel into several number of logical channels, allotting
each one for a different message signal or a data stream
to be transferred.
• The device that does multiplexing can be simply called as
a MUX while the one that reverses the process which is
demultiplexing, is called as DEMUX.
Uses of Multiplexing
• Multiplexing is used for a variety of purposes in data
communications to enhance the efficiency and capacity of
networks.
Here are some of the main uses:

• Efficient Utilization of Resources

• Telecommunications
• Internet and Data Networks:
• Satellite Communications
Types of Multiplexers
1. Frequency Division Multiplexing
• Frequency division multiplexing is defined as a type of
multiplexing where the bandwidth of a single physical
medium is divided into a number of smaller, independent
frequency channels.
• In FDM, we can observe a lot of inter-channel cross-talk
because in this type of multiplexing the bandwidth is
divided into frequency channels.
• In order to prevent the inter-channel cross talk, unused
strips of bandwidth must be placed between each channel.
These unused strips between each channel are known as
guard bands.

Frequency Division Multiplexing is used in radio and television transmission.

2. Time Division Multiplexing
• Time-division multiplexing is multiplexing wherein FDM,
instead of sharing a portion of the bandwidth in the form
of channels, in TDM, time is shared. Each connection
occupies a portion of time in the link. In Time Division
Multiplexing, all signals operate with the same frequency
(bandwidth) at different times.
There are two Types of Time Division Multiplexing -
Synchronous Time Division Multiplexing & Statistical (or
Asynchronous) Time Division Multiplexing.
2.1 Synchronous TDM :
Synchronous TDM is a type of Time Division Multiplexing
where the input frame already has a slot in the output frame.

Time slots are grouped into frames. One frame consists of

one cycle of time slots.
Synchronous TDM is not efficient because if the input frame
has no data to send, a slot remains empty in the output
frame.
In this, we need to mention the synchronous bit at the
beginning of each frame.
[Link] TDM
• An asynchronous TDM is also called as a Statistical TDM.
ATDM has been designed to solve the problem of
wastage of the multiplexed channels in synchronous
TDM.
• Slot Allocation in ATDM
• In ATDM, if there are n input lines, then each slot can
contain m frames, where m is less than n, as shown in the
figure below.
• Statistical TDM is a type of Time Division Multiplexing
where the output frame collects data from the input frame
till it is full not leaving an empty slot like in Synchronous
TDM.

• In this, we need to include the address of each particular

data in the slot that is being sent to the output frame.
• Statistical TDM is a more efficient type of time-division
multiplexing as the channel capacity is fully utilized and
improves the bandwidth efficiency.