Properties and Characteristics

of Materials
Intended Learning Outcomes
After studying this chapter, you should be able to do
the following:

1. Identify the different properties and

characteristics of materials.

2. Differentiate the importance of each

properties to the materials.

3. Determine the formula to be used in

computing the properties of the materials.
 This chapter primarily presents the different properties and characteristics of materials.
It includes the physical, mechanical, chemical, thermal, electrical, magnetic and optical
properties. Materials have different properties depending on what they are used for. It can
be soft, hard, transparent, translucent etc. It is important to determine the properties of the
material and the factors affecting it.

Physical Properties:
A material’s physical properties denote the physical state of materials
that are exclusive
of their chemical or mechanical components. In particular, these properties encompass
texture, density, mass, melting and boiling points, and electrical and thermal conductivity.
All such physical properties are measurable of observable. This properties are not
constant (will change when subjected to certain variables such as heat).
 Discussed below are the most common physical properties that
are used in selecting or differentiating materials

Density
Density implies the weight of a material, with higher density rates
implying heavier materials. Density of the material can be determined
using the formula below:
𝑚
𝜌 =
𝑣

Where: ρ= density m= mass V=

volume
Melting point
Melting point of the material is the minimum required
temperature for a solid material to change into liquid.

Color
Color is the reflective property of a material.
BOILING POINT
Boiling point is the minimum required temperature for a liquid
material to change into gas. The boiling point of water in standard
condition is 1000C or 212oF

Size and shape

Dimension of any metal reflect shape and size of material,
length, width, height, depth etc. Also, it determines specific rectangular,
circular, spherical, or any other section.

Specific Gravity of Materials

It is defined as ratio of density of material with respect to
density of reference material or substance. It does not have any
unite. Sometimes it is also called as relative density. For gravity
calculation water is considered as reference substance.

Porosity of Materials
When material is in melting condition, it contains some dissolved
gases with in material. When material is solidifies these gases get
evaporate and leave behind voids. Porosity of materials represents
Mechanical Properties
The mechanical behavior of a material reflects its response or deformation in
relation to
an applied load or force. The mechanical properties of materials can be determined by
performing
carefully laboratory experiments such as tensile test, compression test, shear test,
torsion test,
impact test and hardness test. Factors to be considered in the experiment include the
nature of
the applied load and its duration, as well as the environmental conditions. The applied
load can
be tensile, compressive, or shear, and its magnitude may be constant with time, or it
may
fluctuate. Mechanical Properties of Metals and the publication of these standards are
often
coordinated by professional societies such American Society for Testing and Materials
(ASTM),
the most active organization in the United States.
Engineering stress (σ)
Stress is defined as the instantaneous load divided by the
original specimen cross -sectional area. Stress can be determined
using the formula:

Where: F= force applied A= area

Tension test
During this test, gradually increasing tensile load is applied uniaxially
along the long axis
Tensile stress () can be calculated using this formula:
of a specimen.
𝐹𝑜𝑟𝑐𝑒 𝑎𝑝𝑝𝑙𝑖𝑒𝑑
𝜎𝜏 =
𝐴𝑟𝑒𝑎 𝑝𝑒𝑟𝑝𝑒𝑛𝑑𝑖𝑐𝑢𝑙𝑎𝑟

Compression Test
A compression test is conducted in a manner similar to the tensile test,
except that the
force is compressive and the specimen
𝐹𝑜𝑟𝑐𝑒 contracts along the direction of the
𝑎𝑝𝑝𝑙𝑖𝑒𝑑
𝜎 𝑐=
stress.
𝐴𝑟𝑒𝑎 𝑝𝑒𝑟𝑝𝑒𝑛𝑑𝑖𝑐𝑢𝑙𝑎𝑟
Shear test
Shear test performed using a pure shear force, the shear stress (τ) is
computed according
to:

Torsion Test
Torsion test is a variation of pure shear in which
a structural member is twisted. Torsional stress (τ)
can be computed using this formula:
𝑇𝑐
𝜏=
𝐽

Where: T= twisting moment C=distance from the center J= polar moment of inertia
Engineering strain (ϵ)
Using tensile and compression testing, strain is expressed as the change in length (in
the
direction of load application) divided by the original length. Strain can be determined
using the
formula:

∈=
Where: ΔL= final length – original length L= original length

The shear strain(ɣ) in pure shear is defined as the tangent of the strain angle θ
while in
Elastic deformation
torsion, the shear strain is related to the angle of twist (ø)

Stress-Strain Behavior
The degree to which a structure deforms or strains depends on the magnitude of
an imposed stress. For most metals that are stressed in tension and at relatively low

𝜎=𝐸∈
levels, stress and strain are proportional to each other through the relationship:

where: σ =stress E= modulus of elasticity ϵ= strain

This equation is based on Hooke’s Law, where the stress is directly proportional
to strain.
Elastic Deformation is the deformation in which stress and strain are
proportional.
Figure 7 shows a plot of stress (ordinate) versus strain (abscissa) results in a linear
relationship. The slope of this linear segment corresponds to the modulus of elasticity
E.
The greater the value of modulus, the stiffer the material is. Elastic deformation is
nonpermanent, which means that when the applied load is released, the piece
Elastic Properties
returns to of Materials
Poisson’s
its ratio (ν)
original shape.
It is defined as the ratio of the lateral and axial strains. It can
be determined using the formula below:
=-
Poisson’s ratio will always be positive, since ϵ x and ϵ y will always
be of opposite
sign. For many metals and other alloys, values of Poisson’s ratio range
between 0.25 and
0.35. For isotropic materials, shear and elastic moduli are related to each
other and to
Poisson’s ratio according to:
Where: G = shear modulus of elasticity or modulus of rigidity

Shear modulus of elasticity is the slope of the linear elastic region of

the shear
stress–strain curve.

Plastic deformation

Plastic deformation occur when the stress is removed, the material

does not return to its previous dimension, it is a permanent, irreversible
deformation.

Tensile properties

Tensile properties can be determined using tensile testing. The

properties can be easily
explain using
Proportional the stress-strain diagram. Figure 8 shows the sample stress-
Limit
strainIt diagram for in the strain curve which obeys Hooke's law i.e. within elastic limit
is the region
ductile
the materials.
stress
is directly proportion to the strain produced in the material. In this limit the ratio of
stress with strain
gives us proportionality constant known as young’s modulus. The point OA in the
Elastic Limit

It is the point in the graph up to which the material returns to its original position when the
load acting on it is completely removed. Beyond this limit the material cannot return to its origin
position and a plastic deformation starts to appear in it. In stress strain curve, from point A to B,
the material exhibit elastic properties.

Yield Point or Yield Stress Point

Yield point in a stress strain diagram is defined as the point at which the material starts to
deform plastically. After the yield point is passed there is permanent deformation develops in the
material and which is not reversible. There are two yield points and it is upper yield point and
lower yield point. The stress corresponding to the yield point is called yield point stress. The poin
B is the upper yield stress point and C is the lower yield stress point.

Ultimate Stress/ Tensile Strength

It is the point corresponding to the maximum stress that a material can handle before
failure. It is the maximum strength point of the material that can handle the maximum load. Bey
this point the failure takes place. Point D in the graph is the ultimate stress point.
Fracture or Breaking Point

It is the point in the stress strain curve at which the failure of the material takes place.
The
fracture or breaking of material takes place at this point. The point E is the breaking point in
the
graph.

Ductility
Ductility is a property of a solid material which indicates that how easily a material gets
deformed under tensile stress. Ductility is often categorized by the ability of material to get
stretched into a wire by pulling or drawing. This mechanical property is also an aspect of
plasticity

% 𝐸𝑙𝑜𝑛𝑔𝑎𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛 =
of material and temperature dependent. With rise of temperature, the ductility of material
increases.
It is the opposite of brittleness. Ductility can be given either as percent maximum
elongation Where is the fracture length and is the original gauge length.
 Ductility of the material can also be determined using percent reduction
of area. Below are
the formula for the reduction%ofReduction
area. Area =

Where: is the original area and is the area at the point of

fracture
Resilience

Resilience is the ability of material to absorb the energy when it is deformed

elastically by
applying stress and release the energy when stress is removed. Proof resilience is defined
as the
maximum energy that can be absorbed without permanent deformation. The modulus of
resilience
is defined as the maximum energy that can be absorbed per unit volume without
permanent =
deformation. It can be determined by integrating the stress-strain curve from zero to
Assuming a linear elastic region, we have
elastic limit.

𝜎𝑦= yield strength of the material

Its unit is joule/m3. Modulus of resilience
= can also be determined using this formula:
Where: ϵy= strain at yielding
Toughness

It is the ability of material to absorb the energy and gets plastically deformed
without
fracturing. Its numerical value is determined by the amount of energy per unit
volume. Its unit is
Joule/ m3. Value of tough ness of a material can be Determines by stress-strain
characteristics of
material. For good toughness material should have good strength as well as ductility.
For
example: brittle materials, having good strength but limited ductility is not tough
Hardness
enough.
Conversely, materials having good ductility but low strength are also not tough
It is the
enough. ability of material to resist to permanent shape change due to
Therefore,
external stress.
to be tough, There should be capable to withstand with both high stress and strain.
material
are various measure of hardness – scratch Hardness, indentation hardness
and rebound
hardness
• Scratch Hardness Scratch Hardness is the ability of material to oppose
the scratch to
outer surface layer due to external force.
• Indentation Hardness It is ability of material to oppose the dent due to
punch of external
had and sharp object.
Hardenability
It is the ability of a material to attain the hardness by heat treatment
processing. It is
determined by the depth up to which the material becomes hard. The SI
unit of hardenability is meter (similar to length). Hardenability of material
is inversely proportional to the weld-ability of
material.
Brittleness

Brittleness of a material indicates that how easily it gets fractured when it is subjected to
a force or load. When a brittle material is subjected to a stress is observes very less energy and
gets fractures without significant strain. Brittleness is converse to ductility of material. Brittleness
of material is temperature depended. Some metals which are ductile at normal temperature
become brittle at low temperature.

Malleability

Malleability is property of solid material which indicates that how easily a material gets
deformed under compressive stress. Malleability is often categorized by the ability of material to
be formed in the form of a thin sheet by hammering or rolling. This mechanical property is an
aspect of plasticity of material. Malleability of material is temperature dependent. With rise of
temperature, the malleability of material increases.
Creep and Slip

Creep is the property of material which indicates the tendency of material to move slowly
and deform permanently under the influence of external mechanical stress. It results due to long
time exposure to large external mechanical stress with in limit of yielding. Creep is more severe
in material that are subjected to heat for long time. Slip in material is a plane with high density of
atoms.

Fatigue

Fatigue is the weakening of material caused by the repeated loading of material. When a
material is subjected to cyclic loading, and loading greater than certain threshold value but much
below the strength of material (ultimate tensile strength limit or yield stress limit, microscopic
cracks begin to form at grain boundaries and interfaces. Eventually the crack reached to a critical
size. This crack propagates suddenly and the structure gets fractured. The shape of structure
effects the fatigue very much. Square holes and sharp corners lead to elevated stresses where
the fatigue crack initiates.
Chemical Properties
p H is a measure of the acidity or basicity of a solution. Solutions with a pH less
than 7 are
said to be acidic and solutions with a pH greater than 7 are said to be basic or alkaline.
In a solution pH is the negative logarithm (base 10) of the molar concentration of
dissolved hydrogen ions (H+); a low pH indicates a high concentration of hydrogen ions, while a
high pH indicates a low concentration.

Hygroscope is the ability of a substance to attract and hold water molecules from the
surrounding environment through either absorption or adsorption with the adsorbing or
absorbing material becoming physically 'changed,' somewhat, increase in volume,
stickiness, or other
physical characteristic changes of the material as water molecules become
'suspended' between
the material's molecules in the process.
Surface tension is a property of the surface of a liquid that allows it to resist an external
force. This property is caused by cohesion of like molecules, and is responsible for many
of the behaviors of liquids.
The cohesive forces among the liquid molecules are responsible for this
phenomenon of surface tension. In the bulk of the liquid, each molecule is pulled equally
in every direction by neighboring liquid molecules, resulting in a net force of zero. The
molecules at the surface do not have other molecules on all sides of them and therefore
are pulled inwards. This creates some internal pressure and forces liquid surfaces to
contract to the minimal area
Specific surface area is a material property of solids which measures the total surface
area per unit of mass, solid or bulk volume, or cross-sectional area. It is a derived scientific value
that can be used to determine the type and properties of a material (e.g. soil). It is defined either
by surface area divided by mass (with units of m²/kg), or surface area divided by the volume
(units
of m²/m³ or m-1)
It has a particular importance in case of adsorption, heterogeneous catalysis,
and reactions on surfaces.
Reactivity
then refers to the rate at which a chemical substance tends to undergo
a chemical reaction in time. In pure compounds, reactivity is regulated by the physical properties
of the sample. For instance, grinding a sample to a higher specific surface area increases its
reactivity. In impure compounds, the reactivity is also affected by the inclusion of contaminants.
In crystalline compounds, the crystalline form can also affect reactivity. However, in all cases,
reactivity is primarily due to the sub-atomic properties of the compound.

Corrosion resistance
Some metals are more intrinsically resistant to corrosion than others, either due to the
fundamental nature of the electrochemical processes involved or due to the details of how
reaction products form.
The materials most resistant to corrosion are those for which corrosion
is thermodynamically unfavorable. Any corrosion products of gold or platinum tend to decompose
spontaneously into pure metal, which is why these elements can be found in metallic form on
Earth, and is a large part of their intrinsic value. More common "base" metals can only be
protected by more temporary means. Some metals have naturally slow reaction kinetics, even
though their corrosion is thermodynamically favorable. These include such metals as zinc, magnesium, and
cadmium. While corrosion of these metals is continuous and ongoing,
it happens at an acceptably slow rate.
Thermal Properties
Heat Capacity or specific heat
Heat capacity (usually denoted by a capital C, often with subscripts) is a property that is
indicative of a material’s ability to absorb heat from the external surroundings; it
represents the
amount of energy required to produce a unit temperature rise. In the International System of Units,
𝐶 = 𝑑𝑄
heat capacity is expressed in units of joules per kelvin. It can be expressed as:
𝑑𝑡

where 𝑑𝑄 is the energy required to produce a dT temperature change.

Derived quantities that specify heat capacity as an intensive property, independent of the
size of a sample, are the:
specific heat capacity, often called simply specific heat, denoted by a lowercase c, which is
the heat capacity per unit mass of a material and has a various units of J/kg-K, cal/gK and
BTU/lbmoF.

molar heat capacity, which is the heat capacity per mole of a pure substance (J/mol-K)
Thermal expansion is a material property that is indicative of the extent to which a material
expands upon heating, and has units of reciprocal temperature. All materials have this tendency.
When a substance is heated, its particles begin moving and become active thus maintaining a
greater average separation. The change in the linear and volumetric dimension can be estimated
to be:

𝐿= 𝛼𝑙∆𝑇
∆𝐿

Where: αL = coefficient of linear expansion L = initial length

∆T= change in temperature ∆L= change in length

𝑉= 𝛼𝑣∆𝑇
∆𝑉 Thermal conductivity

Where: αV= coefficient of volume expansion V = initial volume

∆T= change in temperature ∆V= change in volume

Thermal conductivity, k, is the property that characterizes the ability of a material to

transfer heat Thermal conductivity is measured in watts per kelvin per meter (W/K·m) or BTU/ft
of. Multiplied by a temperature difference (in kelvins, K) and an area (in square meters, m2),
and

𝑞 = conductivity can be expressed as:

divided by a thickness (in meters, m), the thermal conductivity predicts the rate of energy loss (in
watts, W) through a piece of material. Thermal
where q denotes the heat flux, or heat flow, per unit time per unit area (area being taken as that
perpendicular to the flow direction), k is the thermal conductivity, and dT/dx is the temperature
gradient through the conducting medium.

Thermal stresses
are stresses induced in a body as a result of changes in temperature.
An understanding of the origins and nature of thermal stresses is important because these
stresses can lead to fracture or undesirable plastic deformation. Thermal Stress can be calculated

𝜎 = 𝐸(𝑇𝑜− 𝑇𝑓) = 𝐸∆𝑇

using this formula:

Where: E = modulus of elasticity α1= linear coefficient of thermal expansion

Upon heating where >To, the stress is compressive because the rod expansion is
constrained. If the specimen is cooled where <To, a tensile stress is imposed

ELECTRICAL PROPERTIES
Consideration of the electrical properties of materials is often important when materials
selection and processing decisions are being made during the design of a component or structure.
For example, when we consider an integrated circuit package, the electrical behaviors of the
various materials are diverse. Some need to be highly electrically conductive (e.g., connecting
wires), whereas electrical insulative is required of others
Electrical Conduction

Ohm’s Law relate the current (I) or time rate of charge passage to the applied
voltage (V).

𝑉 = 𝐼𝑅
This can be expressed as:

Where: R= resistance of material through which the current passing

The value of R is influenced by specimen configuration and for many materials is
independent of current.
The electrical resistivity (ρ) is independent of specimen geometry but related to R through

𝜌=
the expression:

Where: l = distance between the two points at which the voltage is measured
A = cross-sectional area perpendicular to the direction of the current.
From the expression for Ohm’s law and relation of resistivity to the

𝜌=
resistance:
Electrical Conductivity (σ)

Electrical conductivity indicative of the ease with which a material is capable of conducting
an electric current.
Conductivity is the reciprocal (inverse) of electrical resistivity, ρ, and has the SI units
of siemens per meter (Ω·m) -1 and CGSE units of inverse second (s–1):
1
𝜎 =¿ 𝜌 ¿

𝐽 = 𝜎𝐸
In addition, Ohm’s law may be expressed as:

Where : J= the current density = 𝐼𝐴

⁄

Then, E = 𝑉/𝑙
E=electric (vector) field intensity

Most metals are extremely good conductors of electricity

Electrical resistivity is the reciprocal of electrical Conductivity. Because crystalline defects
serve as scattering centers for conduction electrons in metals, increasing their number raises the
resistivity (or lowers the conductivity)
The total resistivity of a metal is the sum of the contributions from thermal vibrations,
impurities, and plastic deformation, that is, the scattering mechanisms act independently of one
another. This may be represented in mathematical form as follows and sometimes known as
𝜌𝑡𝑜𝑡𝑎𝑙 = 𝜌𝑡+ 𝜌𝑖+𝜌𝑑
Matthiessen’s rule

Where: = represent the individual thermal

= impurity
= deformation resistivity

Capacitance (C)
When a voltage is applied across a capacitor, one plate becomes positively charged and
the other negatively charged, with the corresponding electric field directed from the
positive to the negative plates. The capacitance is related to the quantity of charge
stored on either plate Q by:
𝜎
𝑐=¿ 𝑣 ¿ Where: V +voltage applied across the capacitor.
The units of capacitance are coulombs per volt, or farads
(F).
Permittivity
is the measure of how much resistance is encountered when forming an
electric field in a medium. In other words, permittivity is a measure of how an electric field affects,
and is affected by a dielectric medium. In SI units, permittivity ε is measured
in farads per meter (F/m).
Permittivity
is determined by the ability of a material to polarize in response to the field,
and thereby reduce the total electric field inside the material. Thus, permittivity relates to a
material's ability to transmit (or "permit") an electric field.
Dielectric Constant
The relative permittivity often called as dielectric constant. It is equal to the ratio of
𝜖
𝜀𝑟 𝜖𝑜
which is greater than unity and represents the increase in charge-storing capacity
upon insertion
of the dielectric medium between the plates. The dielectric constant is one material
property of
prime consideration for capacitor design. The value of dielectric constant for some
materials can
be shown in table 3.0
Dielectric Strength

The dielectric strength, sometimes called the breakdown strength, represents the
magnitude of an electric field necessary to produce breakdown. The value of dielectric strength
of some material can be shown in table 3.0/

Ferroelectricity

The group of dielectric materials called ferroelectrics exhibit spontaneous polarization—

that is, polarization in the absence of an electric field. They are the dielectric analogue of
ferromagnetic materials, which may display permanent magnetic behavior.

Piezoelectricity
Piezoelectricity is an unusual phenomenon exhibited by a few ceramic materials (as well
as some polymers). It sometimes called as pressure electricity. Electric polarization is induced in
the piezoelectric crystal as a result of a mechanical strain produced from the application of an
external force. Piezoelectric materials may be used as transducers between electrical and
mechanical energies.
 MAGNETIC PROPERTIES

Materials may be classified by their response to externally applied magnetic fields

as diamagnetic, paramagnetic, or ferromagnetic. These magnetic responses differ greatly in
strength.

Magnetism

Magnetism is the phenomenon by which materials exert an attractive or repulsive force or

influence on other materials. Iron, some steels, and the naturally occurring mineral lodestone are
well-known examples of materials that exhibit magnetic properties.

BASIC CONCEPTS
Magnetic dipoles

Magnetic dipoles are found to exist in magnetic materials, which, in some respects, are
analogous to electric dipoles. Magnetic dipoles may be thought of as small bar magnets
composed of north and south poles instead of positive and negative electric charges. The
magnetic field distributions as indicated by lines of force are shown for a current loop and a bar
magnet
Magnetic field strength (H)

Magnetic field strength is the externally applied magnetic field. The units of H are ampere-
turns per meter, or just amperes per meter. Magnetic field strength can be expressed as:

Where: N= number of turns 𝑙 = length 𝐼 = magnitude

Magnetic flux density (B)

Magnetic flux density or magnetic induction represents the magnitude of the internal field
strength within a substance that is subjected to an H field. The units for B are tesla or weber

𝐵 = 𝜇𝐻
per square meter (Wb/m2 ). The magnetic field strength and flux density are related according to:

Where: 𝜇= permeability

Permeability

Permeability is a property of the specific medium through which the H field passes and in
which B is measured. The permeability has dimensions of weber per ampere-meter (Wb/A-m)
or Henries per meter (H/m)
 Diamagnetism

Diamagnetism is a very weak form of magnetism that is nonpermanent and persists only
while an external field is being applied. It is induced by a change in the orbital motion of electrons
due to an applied magnetic field. The magnitude of the induced magnetic moment is extremely
small and in direction opposite to that of the applied field.

Paramagnetism

For some solid materials, each atom possesses a permanent dipole moment by virtue of
incomplete cancellation of electron spin and/or orbital magnetic moments. In the absence of an
external magnetic field, the orientations of these atomic magnetic moments are random, such that
a piece of material possesses no net macroscopic magnetization. These atomic dipoles are free
to rotate, and paramagnetism results when they preferentially align, by rotation, with an external
field.

Both diamagnetic and paramagnetic materials are considered nonmagnetic

because they
exhibit magnetization only when in the presence of an external field
Ferromagnetism

Certain metallic materials possess a permanent magnetic moment in the absence of an

external field and manifest very large and permanent magnetizations. These are the
characteristics of ferromagnetism, and they are displayed by the transition metals iron (as BCC
a-ferrite), cobalt, nickel, and some rare earth metals such as gadolinium (Gd).

Antiferromagnetism

Magnetic moment coupling between adjacent atoms or ions also occurs in materials other
than those that are ferromagnetic. In one such group, this coupling results in an antiparallel
alignment; the alignment of the spin moments of neighboring atoms or ions in exactly opposite
directions is termed antiferromagnetism. Manganese oxide (MnO) is one material that displays
this behavior.

Ferrimagnetism

Some ceramics also exhibit a permanent magnetization. The macroscopic magnetic

characteristics of ferromagnets and ferrimagnets are similar; the distinction lies in the source of
the net magnetic moments.
OPTICAL PROPERTIES

Optical properties are a material’s response to exposure to electromagnetic radiation and,

in particular, to visible light.

BASIC CONCEPTS

Electromagnetic radiation

Electromagnetic radiation is considered to be wavelike, consisting of electric and magnetic

field components that are perpendicular to each other and also to the direction of propagation.
Light, heat (or radiant energy), radar, radio waves, and x-rays are all forms of electromagnetic
radiation. The electromagnetic spectrum of radiation spans the wide range from g-rays (emitted
by radioactive materials) having wavelengths on the order of 1012 m (103 nm) through x-rays,
ultraviolet, visible, infrared, and finally radio waves with wavelengths as long as 105 m.
LIGHT INTERACTIONS WITH SOLID

The intensity 𝐼𝑜 of the beam incident to the surface of the solid medium must equal the
sum of the intensities of the transmitted, absorbed, and reflected beams
Radiation intensity

Radiation intensity expressed in watts per square meter, corresponds to the energy being
transmitted per unit of time across a unit area that is perpendicular to the direction of propagation.

Transparent
Materials that are capable of transmitting light with relatively little absorption and reflection,
one can see through them. Electrically insulating materials can be made to be transparent

Translucent
Materials are those through which light is transmitted diffusely; that is, light is scattered
within the interior to the degree that objects are not clearly distinguishable when viewed through
a specimen of the material.
Opaque

Materials that are impervious to the transmission of visible light.

Refraction

Refraction is the phenomenon in which light that is transmitted into the interior of
transparent materials experiences a decrease in velocity, and, as a result, is bent at the interface.
The index of refraction n of a material is defined as the ratio of the velocity in a vacuum c to the
velocity in the medium v or can be expressed as:
C=
Reflection

When light passes from one transparent medium to another having a different index of
refraction, some of it is reflected at the interface. The degree of the reflectance depends on the
indices of refraction of both media, as well as the angle of incidence. For normal incidence,
reflectivity may be calculated using.
R=() where:
n1 and n2 are the indices of refraction of the two media
Absorption

Pure nonmetallic materials are either intrinsically transparent or opaque. Light radiation is
absorbed in this group of materials by two basic mechanisms that also influence the transmission
characteristics of these nonmetals.

Absorption of a photon of light may occur by the promotion or excitation of an electron

from the nearly filled valence band, across the band gap, and into an empty state within the
conduction band.
Transmission

of light through a transparent solid. For an incident beam of intensity 𝐼𝑜 that impinges on the front
The phenomena of absorption, reflection, and transmission may be applied to the passage

surface of a specimen of thickness 𝑙 and absorption coefficient 𝛽 , the transmitted intensity at the
back face 𝐼𝑇is

=
Where: R is the reflectance, it is assumed that the same medium exists outside both front and
back faces

Color

Transparent materials appear colored as a consequence of specific wavelength ranges of

light that are selectively absorbed; the color discerned is a result of the combination of
wavelengths that are transmitted