Problem Solving
Rational and Creative Problem Solving
If there were no problems there would be no need for managers
Managerial Success Depends on Making the Right Decisions at the Right Times.
Approaches
Rationale problem solving Creative problem solving
Rationale Problem Solving
What are the steps? When is this the most effective method?
A B C
What Are the Steps for Rational Problem Solving?
Problem Solving Decision Making Follow-through
STEPS
1.
2. 3.
Problem Awareness Define the problem Decision Making
Generate alternative solutions Evaluate and select an alternative
4.
5.
Implement Follow-through
follow up on the solution
Problem Awareness
Establish Trust Clarify Objectives Assess the Current Situation Identify Problems
Routine Problems Nonroutine Problems
Flowcharts
Defining the problem
Fact not opinion or speculation Broad participation Agree on what the problem is! State the problem explicitly Identify what standards or expectations were violated or need to be addressed Whose problem is this? Problem not solution
Problem Definition
Problems not solutions
Cause-and-effect Diagram
Exhibit 9.3: Cause-and-effect Diagram
Decision Making
Establish Decision Making Criteria
Specific, Measurable, and Attainable Complementary Ethical Acceptable
Develop Action Alternatives
Generate alternatives
List all alternatives before evaluating them Broad participation Solutions must be consistent with organizational goals Synergy can turn bad ideas into good ones Keep focused on problem
Constraints
Alternatives are often evaluated as they arise Few of the many possible solutions are known The first acceptable solution usually is accepted Alternatives are based on what was successful in the past
Decision Making (continued)
Evaluate Benefits and Risks of Alternatives
Certainty Known Risk Uncertainty Turbulence
Decide on a Plan
Decision Making (continued)
Decide on a Plan
Perfect Rationality Bounded Rationality
Constraints
Satisfactory not optimal solutions are usually accepted Usually limited information about alternatives is available Solutions are often implemented before problem is defined Preferences usually arent known
Implementation
How can we maximize the probability that our solution will be accepted and fully implemented? Importance of feedback Engenders buy-in Evaluation: did it solve the problem?
Constraints
It may take a long time Acceptance by others not always forthcoming Resistance to change What should be followed-up and evaluated Politics!
Action Plan Implementation
Assign Tasks and Responsibilities Establish an Implementation Schedule
Gantt Chart
Exhibit 9.5: Gantt Chart
Follow-Through
Establish Criteria for Measuring Success. Monitor the Results. Take Corrective Action.
When Is Participation Appropriate for Decision Making?
Degrees of Decision Participation
Autocratic
Consultative
Group
Criteria for Participation
Quality Requirements
Criteria for Participation
Quality Requirements
Acceptance Requirements
Criteria for Participation
Quality Requirements
Acceptance Requirements Time Requirements
Choosing the Appropriate Degree of Participation
Exhibit 9.7: Decision Tree for Decision Making Participation
Advantages and Disadvantages of Group Decision Making
Advantages and Disadvantages of Group Decision Making (continued)
Advantages Making Decisions in Groups Disadvantages of Making Decisions in Groups
More Time Investment
Individual Agendas Shared Responsibility
Pressure to Conform
Groupthink
Advantages and Disadvantages of Group Decision Making (continued)
The Managers Role Is Making Group Decision Effective.
When rationale problem solving wont work
Outcomes unpredictable Sufficient information isnt available Means-ends connections arent clear
try
Creative problem solving
Getting past our personal (conceptual) roadblocks and finding creative solutions
Encouraging Creativity
Characteristics of Managers Who Generate Creativity
Absorb Risks Can Live with Half-developed Ideas Stretch Normal Policies Good Listeners Dont Dwell on Mistakes Trust Their Intuition Are Enthusiastic and Invigorating
Encouraging Creativity
(Continued)
Promoting Creative Thinking in Organizations
Brainstorming Nominal Group Technique Delphi Technique Group Decision Support
Systems
Conceptual blocks
Constancy:
one way of looking at things One thinking language
Conceptual blocks
Commitment:
sticking with it Perceptual Stereotyping based on past experience Ignoring commonalities
Conceptual blocks
Compression:
narrow focus Artificial constraints Separating figure from ground
Nine dot problem
Conceptual blocks
Complacency:
fear, laziness, ignorance Non-inquisitiveness Bias against thinking
Removing the roadblocks
Focus is on improving ones mental abilities and habits and cultivating dormant skills
Stages in creative thought
1.
Preparation
Gathering data Defining the problem
Generating/examining alternatives
2. 3. 4.
Incubation Illumination verification
Gathering data
dance around the problem
Improving problem definition
Make the strange familiar and familiar strange
Synetics
Analogies: personal, direct, symbolic, fantasy
Elaborate on the definition
Is there anything else?
Is the reverse true? Is there a more general problem? Can it be stated differently? Who sees it differently? What past experience is this like?
Reverse the definition
Janusian thinking: Thinking
contradictory thoughts at the same time
Generating more alternatives
Fluency and flexibility Defer judgment: Brainstorming Expand current alternatives: subdivision Combine unrelated attributes
Morphological forced connections
Relational algorithm
Foster innovation
Pull people apart; put people together Monitor and prod Reward multiple roles
Tips
Break out of your routine: give yourself a break Make thinking a priority Talk to other people about ideas and about your problems Read outside of your area of expertise Avoid black holes