EECE2031: ANALOG

CIRCUITS
Faculty-Mr V Santosh Kumar
Semester-IV
Class-2/4 ECE C
 Module-V
Multivibrator Circuits
Op-Amp Multivibrators
• Multivibrators are square wave oscillators that produce
pulse waveforms with various ON time and OFF time.

• TON and TOFF are two states of the pulse. The place where TON transits
to TOFF or TOFF to TON is termed as state transition.
• The state transition may have slope (with a small time for transition)
or infinite slope (No time for transition-being abrupt).
• There are three types of multivibrators available according to their
state transition. They are (a.) astable, (b.) monostable, and (c).
bistable multivibrators.
• Astable multivibrator is one that generates pulses those
transits from one state to another without any external trigger.
It is done by its free-will controlled by the design aspects. Thus
this is called free-running multivibrator. So the states are not
stable for a long time, the states can be termed as Quasi-stable
states. Hence this multivibrator generates pulses of no stable
states, it is termed as Astable multivibrator.
• Monostable multivibrator is one that generates pulses those
transits from one state to another with the help of one external
trigger. The multivibrator remains in one state (stable state)
and when an external pulse is applied then it transits state
from present Stable state to a quasistable state. It remains at
quasi-stable state for a time period of T as it is designed and
then returns to a stable state without any external trigger.
Since it changes state from stable to quasistable using one
external trigger, it is termed as one-shot multivibrator or
Monostable multivibrator.
• Bistable multivibrator is one that generates pulses those
transits from one state to another with the help of two
external trigger. The multivibrator remains in one state
(stable state) and when an external pulse is applied then it
transits state from present Stable state to a next stable state.
It remains at second stable state until another external
trigger is applied. Thus this multivibrator has stable states
only and the transitions happen only when triggers are
applied, it is termed as Bistable
Bistable Multivibrators
• As its name indicates, the bistable multivibrator has two
stable states. The circuit can remain in either stable state
indefinitely and moves to the other stable state only when
appropriately triggered.
The Feedback Loop:
• Bistability can be obtained by connecting a dc amplifier in a
positive-feedback loop having a loop gain greater than unity.
• Such a feedback loop is shown in Fig
Contd..
• it consists of an op amp and a resistive voltage divider in the positive-
feedback path.
• To see how bistability is obtained, consider operation with the
positive-input terminal of the op amp near ground potential.
• Since the circuit has no external excitation, assume that the electrical
noise that is inevitably present in every electronic circuit causes a
small positive increment in the voltage v+.
• This incremental signal will be amplified by the large open-loop gain
A of the op amp, with the result that a much greater signal will
appear in the op amp’s output voltage vO.
• The voltage divider (R1, R2) will feed a fraction β ≡ R1 ⁄ (R1 + R2) of
the output signal back to the positive-input terminal of the op amp.
• This regenerative process continues until eventually the op amp
saturates with its output voltage at the positive-saturation level, L+.
• When this happens, the voltage at the positive-input terminal, v+,
becomes , (L+)R1 ⁄ (R1 + R2) which is positive and thus keeps the op
amp in positive saturation. This is one of the two stable states of the
circuit.
Contd..
• Had we assumed the equally probable situation of a negative
increment, the op amp would have ended up saturated in the
negative direction with vO = L− and v+ =(L−)R1 ⁄ (R1 + R2) This is the
other stable state.
• We thus conclude that a Bistable circuit has two stable states, one
with the op amp in positive saturation and the other with the op amp
in negative saturation.
• The circuit can exist in either of these two states indefinitely.
• We also note that the circuit cannot exist in the state for which v+ = 0
and vO = 0 for any length of time. This is a state of unstable
equilibrium (also known as a metastable state); any disturbance,
such as that caused by electrical noise, causes the bistable circuit to
switch to one of its two stable states.
Transfer Characteristics of the
Bistable Circuit
Contd..
• Figure (a) shows the bistable circuit with a voltage vI applied to
the inverting input terminal of the op amp.
• To draw the transfer characteristic vO–vI, assume that vO is at one
of its two possible levels, say L+, and thus v+ = βL+. Now as vI is
increased from 0 V, we can see from the circuit that nothing
happens until vI reaches a value equal to v+ (i.e., βL+).
• As vI begins to exceed this value, a net negative voltage develops
between the input terminals of the op amp. This voltage is
amplified by the open-loop gain of the op amp, and thus vO goes
negative.
• The voltage divider in turn causes v+ to go negative, thus
increasing the net negative input to the op amp and keeping the
regenerative process going.
• Figure (b) shows the transfer characteristic for increasing vI.
Observe that the characteristic is that of a comparator with a
threshold voltage denoted VTH, where VTH = β L+.
Contd..
• Next consider what happens as vI is decreased. Since now v+ = β L−,
we see that the circuit remains in the negative-saturation state until
vI goes negative to the point that it equals β L−.
• As vI goes below this value, a net positive voltage appears between
the op amp’s input terminals.
• This voltage is amplified by the op-amp gain and thus gives rise to a
positive voltage at the op amp’s output.
• The regenerative action of the positive-feedback loop then sets in
and causes the circuit eventually to go to its positive-saturation state,
in which vO = L+ and v+ = β L+.
• The transfer characteristic for decreasing vI is shown in Fig. (c).
• Here again we observe that the characteristic is that of a comparator,
but with a threshold voltage VTL = β L−.
• The complete transfer characteristics, vO−vI, of the circuit in Fig. (a)
can be obtained by combining the characteristics in Fig. (b) and (c), as
shown in Fig. (d).
A Bistable Circuit with Non-
inverting
Transfer Characteristics
Contd..
• The basic bistable feedback loop can be used to derive a circuit with
noninverting transfer characteristics by applying the input signal vI
(the trigger signal) to the terminal of R1 that is connected to ground.
• The resulting circuit is shown in Fig. (a). To obtain the transfer
characteristics we first employ superposition to the linear circuit
formed by R1 and R2, thus expressing v+ in terms of vI and vO as

• From this equation we see that if the circuit is in the positive stable
state with vO = L+, positive values for vI will have no effect.
• To trigger the circuit into the L− state, vI must be made negative and
of such a value as to make v+ decrease below zero.
• Thus the low threshold VTL can be found by substituting in above
equation vO = L+, v+ = 0, and vI = VTL. The result is VTL = –(L+)(R1 ⁄
R2)
Contd..
• Similarly, the above equation indicates that when the circuit is
in the negative-output state (vO = L−), negative values of vI will
make v+ more negative with no effect on operation.
• To initiate the regeneration process that causes the circuit to
switch to the positive state, v+ must be made to go slightly
positive.
• The value of vI that causes this to happen is the high threshold
voltage VTH, which can be found by substituting in the
equation, vO = L− and v+ = 0. The result is VTH = –L–(R1 ⁄ R2).
• The complete transfer characteristic of the circuit of Fig. (a) is
displayed in Fig. (b).
• Observe that a positive triggering signal vI (of value greater
than VTH) causes the circuit to switch to the positive state (vO
goes from L− to L+). Thus the transfer characteristic of this
circuit is noninverting.
Comparator Using Op-Amp

• The Op-amp comparator compares one analogue voltage

level with another analogue voltage level, or some preset
reference voltage, VREF and produces an output signal based
on this voltage comparison.
• In other words, the op-amp voltage comparator compares
the magnitudes of two voltage inputs and determines which
is the largest of the two.
• In other words, comparator is a circuit which compares a
signal voltage with a known reference voltage at he other
input.
• It is basically an open-loop Op-Amp with output +Vsat or –Vsat.
Op-Amp Comparator
• With reference to the op-amp comparator circuit above, lets
first assume that VIN is less than the DC voltage level at VREF,
( VIN < VREF ). As the non-inverting (positive) input of the
comparator is less than the inverting (negative) input, the
output will be LOW and at the negative supply voltage, -
Vcc resulting in a negative saturation of the output.
• If we now increase the input voltage, VIN so that its value is
greater than the reference voltage VREF on the inverting
input, the output voltage rapidly switches HIGH towards the
positive supply voltage, +Vcc resulting in a positive
saturation of the output.
• Then we can see that the op-amp voltage
comparator is a device whose output is dependent
on the value of the input voltage, VIN with respect to
some DC voltage level as the output is HIGH when
the voltage on the non-inverting input is greater
than the voltage on the inverting input, and LOW
when the non-inverting input is less than the
inverting input voltage. This condition is true
regardless of whether the input signal is connected
to the inverting or the non-inverting input of the
comparator.
Output waveforms of a voltage
Comparator
Practical Comparator Circuit using
Op-Amp
Regenerative comparator (SCHMITT
TRIGGER)
• A Schmitt trigger circuit is also called a regenerative
comparator circuit.
• The circuit is designed with a positive feedback and
hence will have a regenerative action which will
make the output switch levels.
• Also, the use of positive voltage feedback instead of
a negative feedback, aids the feedback voltage to
the input voltage, instead of opposing it.
• The purpose of the Schmitt trigger is to convert any
regular or irregular shaped input waveform into a
square wave output voltage or pulse.
• Thus, it can also be called a squaring circuit.
• The voltage across R1 is fedback to the non-inverting
input.
• The input voltage Vi triggers or changes the state of
output Vout every time it exceeds its voltage levels
above a certain threshold value called Upper Threshold
Voltage (Vupt) and Lower Threshold Voltage (Vlpt).
• Let us assume that the inverting input voltage has a
slight positive value. This will cause a negative value in
the output. This negative voltage is fedback to the non-
inverting terminal (+) of the op-amp through the
voltage divider. Thus, the value of the negative voltage
that is fedback to the positive terminal becomes higher.
The value of the negative voltage becomes again higher
until the circuit is driven into negative saturation (-
Vsat).
• Now, let us assume that the inverting input voltage has a
slight negative value. This will cause a positive value in the
output. This positive voltage is fedback to the non-inverting
terminal (+) of the op-amp through the voltage divider. Thus,
the value of the positive voltage that is fedback to the
positive terminal becomes higher. The value of the positive
voltage becomes again higher until the circuit is driven into
positive saturation (+Vsat). This is why the circuit is also
named a regenerative comparator circuit.
• When Vout = +Vsat, the voltage across R1 is called Upper
Threshold Voltage (Vupt). The input voltage, Vin must be
slightly more positive than Vupt inorder to cause the output
Vo to switch from +Vsat to -Vsat. When the input voltage is
less than Vupt, the output voltage Vout is at +Vsat.
• Upper Threshold Voltage, Vupt = +Vsat (R1/[R1+R2])
• When Vout = -Vsat, the voltage across R1 is called Lower
Threshold Voltage (Vlpt). The input voltage, Vin must be
slightly more negaitive than Vlpt inorder to cause the output
Vo to switch from -Vsat to +Vsat. When the input voltage is
less than Vlpt, the output voltage Vout is at –Vsat.
• Lower Threshold Voltage, Vlpt = -Vsat (R1/[R1+R2])
• If the value of Vupt and Vlpt are higher than the input noise
voltage, the positive feedback will eliminate the false output
transitions. With the help of positive feedback and its
regenerative behaviour, the output voltage will switch fast
between the positive and negative saturation voltages.
 Hysteresis Characteristics
Since a comparator circuit with a
positive feedback is used, a dead
band condition hysteresis can
occur in the output. When the
input of the comparator has a
value higher than Vupt, its output
switches from +Vsat to -Vsat and
reverts back to its original state,
+Vsat, when the input value goes
below Vlpt. This is shown in the
figure. The hysteresis voltage can
be calculated as the difference
between the upper and lower
threshold voltages.
 Vhysteresis = Vupt – Vlpt
•Subsituting the values of Vupt and Vlpt from the above
equations

Vhysteresis = +Vsat (R1/R1+R2) – {-Vsat (R1/R1+R2)}

Vhysteresis = (R1/R1+R2) {+Vsat – (-Vsat)}

•Schmitt trigger may be used for all applications for
which a general comparator is used. Any type of input
voltage can be converted into its corresponding square
signal wave. The only condition is that the input signal
must have large enough excursion to carry the input
voltage beyond the limits of the hysteresis range.
Astable Multivibrator using Op-amp
• The Astable multivibrator is also called as a free-
running multivibrator.
• It has two quasi-stable states i.e. no stable state
such. No external signal is required to produce the
changes in state.
• The component values used to decide the time for
which circuit remains in each state. Usually, as the
Astable multivibrator oscillates between two states,
is used to produce a square wave.
• Generally the circuit looks like a Schmitt trigger
except that the input voltage is replaced by a
capacitor. As shown in fig. the comparator and
positive feedback resistors form an inverting
Schmitt trigger.
i) When power is turned
ON, V0 automatically swings
either Vsat or –Vsat to since
these are the only stable
states allowed by Schmitt
trigger. Assume it swings
to +Vsat.
ii) Now capacitor starts
charging towards +Vsat
through the feedback path
provided by the resistor Rf to
the inverting input. As long as
the capacitor voltage VC is
less than VUT , the output
voltage remains at VSat
i) As soon as VC charges to a
value slightly greater
than VUT , the input goes
positive with respect to
the input. This switches
the output voltage
from to +Vsat to -VSat.
ii) As V0 switches to -VSat,
capacitor starts
discharging via Rf. The
current I discharges
capacitor to 0 V and
recharges capacitor to VLT
When VC becomes slightly
more negative than the
feedback
voltage VLT , output voltage
DERIVATION OF FREQUENCY OF
OSCILLATION/TIME PERIOD FOR
OP-AMP ASTABLE
MULTIVIBRATOR
• At time T1 (Charging time of Capacitor), VC,is +βVsat
Where, β=R1/(R1+R2)
Monostable Multivibrator Using Op-
Amp
• The circuit as simple and resembles like OP AMP Schmitt
trigger circuit.
• One end of a capacitor C and a resistor R are connected to
the inverting terminal. The other end of the resistor is
connected to the output terminal and that of capacitor is
connected to ground terminal.
• A diode D1 is connected parallel to the capacitor C. This
capacitor C and feedback resistor R decide the period for T
of the multivibrator.
• A resistor R1 is connected between the output terminal and
non-inverting terminal and another resistor R2 is connected
between non-inverting terminal and ground terminals.
• If the output voltage is considered as Vo, then the voltage
tapped between R2 shall be a reference voltage applied to
the non-inverting terminal with amplitude of βVo where β is
feedback factor for comparison.
• A pulse trigger circuit consisting of diode D2 and a
differentiator circuit connected to pulse generator of
negative pulse width Tp. The anode of the diode D2 is
connected to non-inverting terminal.
Working Operation:
Before pulse trigger: At time before pulse trigger, assume the
output is at +Vsat. Since the output is at +Vsat, then
reference voltage is at +βVo and so capacitor voltage VC tries
to charge towards +Vsat. Due to this the diode D1 gets
forward biased when inverting terminal is positive, and the
diode D1 starts conducting beyond 0.7V (Approximate cut-in
voltage of Silicon diode). Thus the diode D1 conducts and
provides a short path beyond 0.7V, and hence the capacitor
C which is parallel can charge upto 0.7V only. So now the
capacitor voltage VC is 0.7V
• At time of pulse trigger: If a negative pulse trigger is
applied at non-inverting terminal and its amplitude
being –Vin.
• Hence at the non-inverting terminal, pulse voltage –
Vin and reference voltage +βVsat exists. The total
voltage is (+βVsat –Vin). The amplitude of this voltage
is less than 0.7V due to existence of diode D2 which is
forward biased (ON) due to –ve trigger pulse
(Cathode of the diode D2 is negative due to -Vin and
anode is positive due to +βVsat).
• Now non-inverting terminal acts as reference
terminal of an inverting comparator.
• At this point inverting terminal is at 0.7V and non-
inverting reference voltage is below 0.7V.
• Hence inverting terminal is more than reference voltage at
non-inverting terminal and the output transits from +Vsat to
–Vsat.
• That is output transited from stable high state to low state.
The capacitor voltage VC is at 0.7V and output is at –Vsat.
Hence the capacitor C starts charging towards -Vsat through
the resistor R. The non-inverting terminal reference voltage
is less than 0.7V.
• At Time AFTER pulse trigger: When pulse trigger ends after
time TP, it becomes positive. So the cathode of diode D2 is at
positive voltage and anode is at –βVsat. Thus the diode D2 is
in reverse bias condition (OFF).
• Due to this the non-inverting voltage is affected only by
reference voltage across resistor R2 which is -βVsat.
• Now reference voltage is at –βVsat and the charging
capacitor is charging towards –Vsat. but when capacitor
voltage VC reaches just above –βVsat, output transits from -
Vsat to +Vsat (Inverting terminal voltage VC is more than
reference voltage at non-inverting terminal).
• This transition happens at time T from start of pulse trigger
where T is decided by RC time constant. That is capacitor C
took time period of T for charging from VD to –βVsat which
is through resistor R. The output stays at a quasi-stable state
for a time period of T.
• After Time T: Now output voltage Vo is at +Vsat and
reference voltage at non-inverting terminal is at +βVsat. The
capacitor starts charging from –βVsat to +Vsat. But when the
capacitor voltage VC increases more than VD, diode D1 is
forward biased and starts conducting.
• Hence the capacitor voltage VC cannot charge beyond VD.
• As seen initially, now the amplitude at inverting terminal is
VD due to charge of capacitor, non-inverting terminal
voltage is at +βVsat.
• The output is a negative pulse voltage whose time period is
T. This negative pulse was generated due to an external
negative trigger (one-shot trigger).
• The output transit from a stable high state to a low quasi-
stable state time T and then to a stable high state. This is a
monostable waveform because it has one stable state and a
quasi-stable state.
 DERIVATION OF FREQUENCY OF
OSCILLATION/TIME PERIOD FOR OP-
AMP MONOSTABLE MULTIVIBRATOR
• At time T1, VC,is –βVsat
Triangular Wave Generator
Using Op amp:
• Basically, triangular wave is generated by alternatively
charging and discharging a capacitor with a constant current.
• This is achieved by connecting integrator circuit at the output
of square wave generator.
• Assume that V’ is high at +Vsat. This forces a constant current
(+Vsat / R3) through C (left to right) to drive Vo negative linearly.
• When V’ is low at -Vsat, it forces a constant current (-Vsat / R3)
through C (right to left) to drive Vo positive, linearly.
• The frequency of the triangular wave is same as that
of square wave. Although the amplitude of the square wave is
constant (± Vsat), the amplitude of the triangular wave
decreases with an increase in its frequency, and vice versa.
This is because the reactance of capacitor decreases at high
frequencies and increases at low frequencies.
In practical circuits, resistance R4 is connected across C to
avoid the saturation problem at low frequencies
Waveform of a Practical Triangular
wave generator
• The time taken by the output to swing from – Vramp to + Vramp (or from
+ Vramp to – Vramp) is equal to half the time period T/2. This time can be
calculated from the integrator output equation as follows :