INTRODUCTION
Set theory is regarded as the foundation of Mathematical thought.
All Mathematical objects can be defined in terms of sets, and the language
of set theory is used in every mathematical subject.
The words set and element are undefined terms of set theory.
SET
A well defined collection of {distinct}objects is called a set.
The objects are called the elements or members of the set.
Sets are denoted by capital letters A, B, C …, X, Y, Z.
The elements of a set are represented by lower case letters
a, b, c, … , x, y, z.
If an object x is a member of a set A we write xA, which
reads “x belongs to A” or “x is in A” or “x is an element of
A”, otherwise we write x A, which reads “x does not belong
to A” or “x is not in A” or “x is not an element of A”.
TABULAR FORM
Listing all the elements of a set, separated by commas and enclosed within
braces or curly brackets{}
EXAMPLES
In the following examples we write the sets in
Tabular Form.
A = {1, 2, 3, 4, 5} is the set of first five Natural Numbers.
B = {2, 4, 6, 8, …, 50} is the set of Even numbers up to 50.
C = {1, 3, 5, 7, 9, …} is the set of positive odd numbers.
NOTE
The symbol “…” is called an ellipsis. It is a short for “and so
DESCRIPTIVE FORM
forth.”
Stating in words the elements of a set.
EXAMPLES
Now we will write the same examples which we
write in Tabular Form ,in the Descriptive Form.
A = {1, 2, 3, 4, 5} ( is the Tabular Form )
A = set of first five Natural Numbers. ( is the Descriptive Form )
B = {2, 4, 6, 8, …, 50} ( is the Tabular Form )
B = set of positive even integers less or equal to fifty. ( is the Descriptive
Form )
C = {1, 3, 5, 7, 9, …} ( is the Descriptive Form )
C = set of positive odd integers. ( is the Descriptive Form )
SET BUILDER FORM
Writing in symbolic form the common characteristics shared by all the
elements of the set.
EXAMPLES
Now we will write the same examples which we
write in Tabular as well as Descriptive Form ,in Set Builder Form .
A = {1, 2, 3, 4, 5} ( is the Tabular Form )
A = set of first five Natural Numbers. ( is the Descriptive Form )
A = {x x<=5} ( is the Set Builder Form)
B = {2, 4, 6, 8, …, 50} ( is the Tabular Form )
B = set of positive even integers less or equal to fifty. ( is the Descriptive
Form )
B = {x / 0 < x <=50} ( is the Set Builder Form)
C = {1, 3, 5, 7, 9, …} ( is the Descriptive Form )
C = set of positive odd integers. ( is the Descriptive Form )
C = {x / 0 < x } ( is the Set Builder Form)
SETS OF NUMBERS
1. Set of Natural Numbers
N = {1, 2, 3, … }
2. Set of Whole Numbers
W = {0, 1, 2, 3, … }
3. Set of Integers
Z = {…, -3, -2, -1, 0, +1, +2, +3, …}
= {0, 1, 2, 3, …}
{“Z” stands for the first letter of the German word for integer:
Zahlen.}
4. Set of Even Integers
E = {0, 2, 4, 6, …}
5. Set of Odd Integers
O = { 1, 3, 5, …}
6. Set of Prime Numbers
P = {2, 3, 5, 7, 11, 13, 17, 19, …}
7. Set of Rational Numbers (or Quotient of Integers)
p
Q = {x | x = ; p, q Z, q 0}
q
8. Set of Irrational Numbers
Q = Q= { x | x is not rational}
For example, 2, 3, , e, etc.
9. Set of Real Numbers
R = Q Q
10. Set of Complex Numbers
C = {z | z = x + iy; x, y R}
We want to give you the concept of Algebraic numbers and
Transcendental numbers, The numbers which are the roots of some
Polynomial are known as the Algebraic Numbers and the numbers which
are not the roots of any Polynomial are known as Transcendental
Numbers.
Example of Transcendental Numbers:
= 3.1415926535... e = 1 + 1/1! + ½! + 1/3! + …
= 2.7182818258…
SUBSET
If A & B are two sets, A is called a subset of B, written A B, if, and only
if, any element of A is also an element of B.
Symbolically:
A B if x A then x B
REMARK
1. When A B, then B is called a superset of A.
2. When A B, then there exist at least one x A such that x B.
3. Every set is a subset of itself.
EXAMPLES
Let
A = {1, 3, 5} B = {1, 2, 3, 4, 5}
C = {1, 2, 3, 4} D = {3, 1, 5}
Then
A B ( Because every element of A is in B )
C B ( Because every element of C is also an element of B )
A D ( Because every element of A is also an element of D and also note
that every element of D is in A so D A )
and A C ( Because there is an element 5 of A which is not in C )
EXAMPLE
The set of integers “Z” is a subset of the set of Rational Number “Q”, since
every integer ‘n’ could be written as:
n
n Q
Hence Z Q. 1
PROPER SUBSET
Let A and B be sets. A is a proper subset of B, if, and only if, every element
of A is in B but there is at least one element of B that is not in A, and is
denoted as A B.
EXAMPLE
Let A = {1, 3, 5}, B = {1, 2, 3, 5}
then A B ( Because there is an element 2 of B which is not in
A).
EXAMPLE
It is very easy to note that
NZQRC
EQUAL SETS
Two sets A and B are equal if, and only if, every element of A is in B and
every element of B is in A and is denoted A = B.
Symbolically:
A = B iff A B and B A
EXAMPLE
Let A = {1, 2, 3, 6} B = the set of positive divisors of 6
C = {3, 1, 6, 2} D = {1, 2, 2, 3, 6, 6, 6}
Then A, B, C, and D are all equal sets.
NULL SET
A set which contains no element is called a null set, or an empty set or a
void set. It is denoted by the Greek letter (phi) or { }.
EXAMPLE
A = {x | x is a person taller than 10 feet} = ( Because there
does not exist any human being which is taller then 10 feet )
B = {x | x2 = 4, x is odd} = (Because we know that there does
not exist any odd whose square is 4)
REMARK
is regarded as a subset of every set.
EXERCISE
Determine whether each of the following statements is true or false.
a. x {x} TRUE
( Because x is the member of the singleton set { x } )
b. {x} {x} TRUE
( Because Every set is the subset of itself.
Note that every Set has necessarily tow subsets and the Set itself, these
two subset are known as Improper subsets and any other subset is
called Proper Subset)
c. {x} {x} FALSE
( Because { x} is not the member of {x} ) Similarly other
d. {x} {{x}} TRUE
e. {x} TRUE
f. {x} FALSE
UNIVERSAL SET
The set of all elements under consideration is called the Universal Set.
The Universal Set is usually denoted by U.
VENN DIAGRAM
A Venn diagram is a graphical representation of sets by regions in the plane.
The Universal Set is represented by the interior of a rectangle, and the other
sets are represented by disks lying within the rectangle.
A B
From the Venn diagram we can note that either the sets intersect each other
or a set is the subset of other or not. I f a set is the subset of the other then in
venn diagram the set is totally contained in the other set as shown in figure
below.
U
B
A
FINITE AND INFINITE SETS
A set S is said to be finite if it contains exactly m distinct elements where m
denotes some non negative integer.
In such case we write S = m or n(S) = m
A set is said to be infinite if it is not finite.
EXAMPLES
1. The set S of letters of English alphabets is finite and S = 26
2. The null set has no elements, is finite and = 0
3. The set of positive integers {1, 2, 3,…} is infinite.
EXERCISE
Determine which of the following sets are finite/infinite.
1. A = {month in the year} FINITE
2. B = {even integers} INFINITE
3. C = {positive integers less than 1} FINITE
4. D = {animals living on the earth} FINITE
5. E = {lines parallel to x-axis} INFINITE
6. F = {x R x100 + 29x50 – 1 = 0} FINITE
7. G = {circles through origin} INFINITE
MEMBERSHIP TABLE
A table displaying the membership of elements in sets. To indicate that
an element is in a set, a 1 is used; to indicate that an element is not in a set, a
0 is used.
Membership tables can be used to prove set identities.
A Ac
1 0
0 1
The above table is the Member ship table for Complement of A. now in the
above table note that if an element is the member of A then it can`t be the
member of Ac thus where in the table we have 1 for A in that row we have
0 in Ac.