THE ENDOCRINE
SYSTEM
Lecture Presentation by:
NORINE ADEL AGUILA
ALYSSA MAE ACOSTA
KRISHA JUNE SALARZON
ERIKA LHYN SEGUBAN
RHIAN JANINE PASION
BEAU ANGELIC UTRERA
MAAN FAYE MENDOZA
10 MAIN REGULATORY FUNCTIONS OF THE ENDOCRINE
SYSTEM ARE THE FOLLOWING:
1. METABOLISM
2. CONTROL OF FOOD INTAKE AND DIGESTION
3. TISSUE DEVELOPMENT
4. ION REGULATION
5. WATER BALANCE
6. HEART RATE AND BLOOD PRESSURE REGULATION
7. CONTROL OF BLOOD GLUCOSE AND OTHER NUTRIENTS
8. CONTROL OF REPRODUCTIVE FUNCTIONS
9. UTERINE CONTRACTIONS AND MILK RELEASE
10. IMMUNE SYSTEM REGULATION
Definition
of
Endocrine
System
-Second controlling system of the
body
-Nervous system is the fast-
control system
-Uses chemical messengers
(hormones) that are released into
the blood
HORMONES
• CHEMICAL NATURE OF HORMONES
1. LIPID-SOLUBLE
Lipid-soluble hormones include steroids, thyroid hormones, and some
fatty acid derivatives
2. WATER-SOLUBLE
• Water-soluble hormones include proteins, peptides, and amino
acid derivatives.
• Water-soluble hormones circulate freely in the blood.
• Proteases degrade protein and peptide hormones in the circulation;
the breakdown products are then excreted in the urine. However, some
water-soluble hormones have chemical modifications, such as the addition5
of a carbohydrate group, which prolongs their life span.
CONTROL OF HORMONE SECRETION STIMULATION OF HORMONE
RELEASE
THREE TYPES OF STIMULI RESULT IN HORMONE SECRETION: HUMORAL,
NEURAL, AND HORMONAL.
1. HUMORAL STIMULATION IS EXHIBITED BY HORMONES THAT ARE
SENSITIVE TO CIRCULATING BLOOD LEVELS OF CERTAIN MOLECULES,
SUCH AS GLUCOSE OR CALCIUM.
2. NEURAL STIMULI CAUSE HORMONE SECRETION IN DIRECT RESPONSE
TO ACTION POTENTIALS IN NEURONS, AS OCCURS DURING STRESS OR
EXERCISE. HORMONES FROM THE HYPOTHALAMUS THAT CAUSE THE
RELEASE OF OTHER HORMONES ARE CALLED RELEASING HORMONES.
3. HORMONAL STIMULATION OF OTHER HORMONE SECRETION IS
COMMON IN THE ENDOCRINE SYSTEM. HORMONES FROM THE
ANTERIOR PITUITARY THAT STIMULATE HORMONES FROM OTHER
ENDOCRINE GLANDS ARE CALLED TROPIC HORMONES.
Action of Nuclear Receptors
1. Nuclear receptors have portions that allow them
to bind to the DNA in the nucleus once the hormone
is bound.
• The hormone-receptor complex activates
genes, which in turn activate the DNA to produce
mRNA.
• The mRNA increases the synthesis of certain
proteins that produce the target cell's response.
2. Nuclear receptors cannot respond immediately
because it takes time to produce the mRNA and the
protein.
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Membrane-Bound Receptors and Signal
Amplification
[Link]-Bound receptors activate a cascade of events once
the hormone binds.
2. Some Membrane-Bound receptors are associated with
membrane proteins called G proteins. When a hormone binds to a
membrane-bound receptor, G proteins are activated. The a
subunit of the G protein can bind to ion channels and cause them
to open or change the rate of synthesis of intracellular mediators,
such as cAMP.
3. Second-Messenger systems act rapidly because they act on
already existing enzymes and produce an amplification effect.
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THE MAJOR ENDOCRINE ORGANS
Hypothalamus
Pituitary gland
Pineal gland
Thyroid gland
Parathyroid glands
Thymus
Adrenal glands
Pancreas
Gonads (testes and ovaries)
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ENDOCRINE GLANDS AND THEIR HORMONES
-The Endocrine system consists of ductless glands.
-Some glands of the endocrine system perform more than one function.
PITUITARY AND HYPOTHALAMUS
Pituitary Gland
• Pea-sized gland that hangs by a stalk from the hypothalamus in the brain
• Protected by the sella turcica of the sphenoid bone
• Has two functional lobes
• Anterior pituitary- Glandular Tissue
• Posterior pituitary- Nervous Tissue
• Often called the -”Master Endocrine Gland ” 10
PITUITARY AND HYPOTHALAMUS
Hypothalamus produces releasing
hormones and inhibiting hormones
• These hormones are released into portal
circulation, which connects hypothalamus to
anterior pituitary
Hypothalamus also makes two hormones:
oxytocin and antidiuretic hormone
• Carried to posterior pituitary via neurosecretory
cells for storage
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PITUITARY AND HYPOTHALAMUS
Six anterior pituitary hormones
Two hormones affect nonendocrine targets
1. Growth hormone
2. Prolactin
Four are tropic hormones
3. Follicle-stimulating hormone
4. Luteinizing hormone
5. Thyrotropic hormone 13
6. Adrenocorticotropic hormone
Hormones of the Anterior
Pituitary
Growth hormone (GH) disorders
•Pituitary dwarfism results from
hyposecretion of GH during
childhood
•Gigantism results from
hypersecretion of GH during
childhood
•Acromegaly results from
hypersecretion of GH during
Pineal Gland
Hangs from the roof of the third ventricle
of the brain
Secretes melatonin
• Believed to trigger the body’s sleep/wake cycle.
• Believed to coordinate the hormones of fertility in
humans and to inhibit the reproductive system
until maturity occurs.
Thyroid Gland
Found at the base of the
throat, inferior to the Adam’s
apple
Consists of two lobes and a
connecting isthmus
Follicles are hollow structures
that store colloidal material
Produces two hormones:
1. Thyroid hormone
2. Calcitonin
Thyroid Hormone
Disorders
Goiters
• Thyroid gland
enlarges due to lack of
iodine
•Salt is iodized to prevent
goiters
Cretinism
•Caused by hyposecretion
of thyroxine
Thyroid Hormone
Disorders
Myxedema
•Caused by hypothyroidism in
adults
•Results in physical and mental
sluggishness
Graves’ disease
•Caused by hyperthyroidism
•Results in increased
metabolism, heat intolerance, rapid
heartbeat, weight loss, and
exophthalmos.
Parathyroid Glands
Tiny masses on the posterior of the thyroid
Secrete Parathyroid Hormone (PTH)
• Most important regulator of calcium ion (Ca2+)
homeostasis of the blood
• Stimulates osteoclasts to remove calcium from
bone
• Hypercalcemic hormone (increases blood
calcium levels)
• Stimulates the kidneys and intestine to absorb
more calcium
Thymus
Located in the upper thorax, posterior to
the sternum
Largest in infants and children
Decreases in size throughout adulthood
Produces a hormone called thymosin
• Matures some types of white blood cells
• Important in developing the immune
system
Adrenal Glands
Sit on top of the kidneys
Two regions
1. Adrenal cortex—outer glandular region has
three layers that produce corticosteroids.
• Mineralocorticoids are secreted by
outermost layer
• Glucocorticoids are secreted by middle layer
• Sex hormones are secreted by innermost
layer
Adrenal Glands
• Hormones of the adrenal cortex
• Mineralocorticoids (mainly
aldosterone)
• Produced in outer adrenal cortex
• Regulate mineral (salt) content in blood,
particularly sodium and potassium ions
• Regulate water and electrolyte balance
• Target organ is the kidney
Adrenal Glands
• Hormones of the adrenal cortex (continued)
• Release of aldosterone is stimulated by:
• Humoral factors (fewer sodium ions or too many
potassium ions in the blood)
• Hormonal stimulation (ACTH)
• Renin and angiotensin II in response to a drop in
blood pressure
• Aldosterone production is inhibited by atrial natriuretic
peptide (ANP), a hormone produced by the heart when
blood pressure is too high
Adrenal Glands
• Hormones of the adrenal cortex (continued)
• Glucocorticoids (including cortisone and cortisol)
• Produced by middle layer of adrenal cortex
• Promote normal cell metabolism
• Help resist long-term stressors by increasing
blood glucose levels (hyperglycemic
hormone)
• Anti-inflammatory properties
• Released in response to increased blood
levels of ACTH
Adrenal Glands
• Hormones of the adrenal cortex (continued)
• Sex Hormones
• Produced in the inner layer of the adrenal
cortex
• Small amounts are made throughout life
• Most of the hormones produced are
androgens (male sex hormones), but some
estrogens (female sex hormones) are also
formed
Adrenal Glands
• Adrenal medulla
• Produces two similar hormones
(catecholamines)
1. Epinephrine (adrenaline)
2. Norepinephrine (noradrenaline)
• These hormones prepare the body to deal with
short term stress (“fight or flight”) by:
• Increasing heart rate, blood pressure, blood
glucose levels
Pancreatic Islets
• Pancreas
• Located in the abdomen, close to
stomach
• Mixed gland, with both endocrine and
exocrine functions
• The pancreatic islets (islets of
Langerhans) produce hormones
• Insulin—produced by beta cells
• Glucagon—produced by alpha cells
• These hormones are antagonists that
maintain blood sugar homeostasis
Pancreatic Islets
• Insulin
• Released when blood glucose levels are high
• Increases the rate of glucose uptake and metabolism
by body cells
• Effects are hypoglycemic
• Glucagon
• Released when blood glucose levels are low
• Stimulates the liver to release glucose to blood, thus
increasing blood glucose levels
Gonads
• Produce sex cells
• Produce sex hormones
• Ovaries
• Female gonads located in the pelvic cavity
• Produce eggs
• Produce two groups of steroid hormones
1. Estrogens
2. Progesterone
• Testes
• Male gonads suspended outside the pelvic cavity
• Produce sperm
• Produce androgens, such as testosterone
Gonads
• Estrogens
• Stimulate the development of secondary female characteristics
• Mature the female reproductive organs
• Progesterone
• Acts with estrogen to bring about the menstrual cycle
• Helps in the implantation of an embryo in the uterus
• Helps prepare breasts for lactation
• With progesterone, estrogens also:
• Promote breast development
• Regulate menstrual cycle
Gonads
• Testes
• Produce several androgens
• Testosterone is the most important
androgen
• Responsible for adult male secondary sex
characteristics
• Promotes growth and maturation of male
reproductive system
• Required for sperm cell production
Other Hormone-Producing Tissues and
Organs
• Other organs that are generally
nonendocrine in function also secrete
hormones
• Stomach
• Small intestine
• Kidneys
• Heart
Other Hormone-Producing Tissues and
Organs
• Placenta
• Produces hormones that maintain pregnancy
• Some hormones play a part in the delivery of the
baby
• Produces human chorionic gonadotropin (hCG) in
addition to estrogen, progesterone, and other
hormones
• Human placental lactogen (hPL) prepares the
Developmental Aspects of the
Endocrine System
• In the absence of disease, efficiency of
the endocrine system remains high
until old age
• Decreasing function of female ovaries
at menopause leads to such symptoms
as osteoporosis, increased chance of
Developmental Aspects of the
Endocrine System
• Efficiency of all endocrine glands gradually
decreases with aging, which leads to a
generalized increase in incidence of:
• Diabetes mellitus
• Immune system depression
• Lower metabolic rate
• Cancer rates in some areas
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