College of Social Sciences and

Humanities
Department of Geography &
Environmental Studies

Introduction to GIS (GeES

3014)
Instructors:
Solomon Eniyew (Ass’t Prof)
 Chapter
One
Introduction of Geographic
Information Systems

Introduction to GIS By Mulualem A. (Assistant Professor)

Contents

 ConceptsofGIS

ComponentofGIS

Sub-systemofGIS

FunctionofGIS/BenefitofGIS

ApplicationofGIS

CapabilityofGIS

Introduction to GIS By Mulualem A. (Assistant Professor)

1.1. Definition of GIS
What is GIS ?

Definition
 There is no clear-cut definition for GIS.
 Different people defined GIS according to
capability and purposes for which it is
applied.

Introduction to GIS By Mulualem A. (Assistant Professor)

 Key elements of GIS
 GIS has three key elements: the Geographic,
Information and the System
 Geographic: It shows the real world or the
spatial realities (Example: the location of a city,
location of a school etc)
 Information: It is about the data and their
meanings (Example: The name of a city, the area
of a city, the population density of a city etc)
 System: The system is also about the computer
technology (Example: Computer hardware &
Software)

Introduction to GIS By Mulualem A. (Assistant Professor)

 Definition of GIS
What is GIS ?
 Definitions:
Different scholars give different Definitions based on their
issue

GIS is defined as a specialized information system used to input,

store, retrieve, manipulate, analyze and output geo-spatial data, in
order to support decision making for planning and management of
land use, natural resources, environment, transportation, urban
facilities, and other administrative records

Introduction to GIS By Mulualem A. And Solomon E.

Objective of GIS
GIS is a powerful set of tools for collecting, storing, retrieving,
transforming, analyzing and displaying spatial data from the real
world for a particular set of purposes.
 To maximizing the efficiency of decision making and planning.
 To provide efficient means of data distribution and handling
 To Elimination of redundant data in data base- minimize
duplication
 To integrate information from many source
 To analysis/queries complex spatial data/reference data/
 To generate new information (visual output i.e. map) .
 To update data quickly and cheaply

Introduction to GIS By Mulualem A. And Solomon E

1.2. Components of a GIS

 An operational GIS also has a series of

components that combine to make the system
work.
 These components are critical to successful GIS.

“There are 5 components of GIS anatomy”

Introduction to GIS By Mulualem A. And Solomon E

 Software
People

Data

GIS

Procedures
Hardware Introduction to GIS By Mulualem A. And Solomon E
 i) People

 GIS technology is of limited value without the people

who manage the system and develop plans for applying
it to real world problems.
 People are the most important component of GIS.
 People need to develop the procedures and define
tasks of GIS.
 People always influence the output of the software and
hardware.
 GIS technology is of limited value without the people
who understand GIS concepts and how to apply
Introduction to GIS By Mulualem A. And Solomon E
 ii). Hardware
 Hardware
is the computer system (Keyboard,
mouse, monitor, CPU…)

Introduction to GIS By Mulualem A. And Solomon E

A. Scanner – it is input device that converts a picture in
analogue format into a digital image for further processing.
The output formats e.g. TIFF, BMP, JPG etc.
B. Digitizer – it is input device used for vectorization of a
given map objects. Features either on paper map or digital
map can be digitized.
C. Printers and plotters - are the most common output
devices for a GIS hardware setup.
D. Storage devices - Storage devices are hardware's designed
to store information.

Introduction to GIS By Mulualem A. And Solomon E

Large format plotters

Introduction to GIS By Mulualem A. (Assistant Professor)

 iii). Software

Software: It provides tools to manage analyze

and effectively display and disseminate spatial
data and spatial information.

The main function of a GIS software’s are

analytical functions, that provides means for
driving new geo-information from the existing
spatial and attribute data.

GIS software’s can be divided as public

domain (freely available) and
commercially available software’s.

Example: ArcView, ArcGIS, ENVI, ERDAS and

Introduction to GIS By Mulualem A. And Solomon E

many more others

 A. Arc GIS
 Arc GIS is predecessors of ArcView and Arc/info and is a
product of ESRI.
 Arc GIS provides an expandable set of capabilities and
wide flexibility in how we conceptualize and model
B. Arc View
geographic features.
 It is GIS software for visualizing, managing, creating, and analyzing
spatial data.
 Read, import, and manage many data types and formats.

C. IDRISI
 IDRIS differs from the previously discussed GIS software packages
in that it provides both image processing and GIS functions.
 Image data are useful as a source of information in GIS
Introduction to GIS By Mulualem A. And Solomon E
 D. ERDAS
 ERDAS (Earth Resources Data Analysis System) began as
primarily an image processing system.
 The original purpose of the software was to enter and
analyze satellite image data.
 ERDAS and most other image processing packages
provide data output formats that are compatible with
most common GIS packages.

E. SURFER
 Surfer is a contouring and 3D surface
mapping software program that runs under
Microsoft Windows.
 The Surfer software quickly and easily converts
Introduction to GIS By Mulualem A. And Solomon E
 iv). Data

 Perhaps the most important component of a GIS

is the data.
The first step of using a GIS is to provide with data.

• Much of the success of a GIS project depends on

the quality of the data that is entered into the
system.
• This phase of a GIS project is critical and must be
taken seriously.

GIS technology utilizes two basic types of data

• Spatial data
• Attribute (Non-spatial) data
Introduction to GIS By Mulualem A. And Solomon E
 v). Procedures (Methods)

 Procedures include how the data will be retrieved, input

into the system, stored, managed, transformed, analyzed,
and finally presented in a final output.
 The procedures are the steps taken to answer the
question need to be resolved.
 The ability of a GIS to perform spatial analysis and answer
these questions is what differentiates this type of system
from any other information systems.
 Applications of geographic information to real world
problem solving is the heart of any GIS
Introduction to GIS By Mulualem A. And Solomon E
vi). Network (Web)

 With rapid development of IT, today the most

fundamental of these is probably the
network, without which no rapid
communication or sharing of digital
information could occur.

 GIS today relies heavily on the Internet,

acquiring and sharing large geographic data
sets.

Introduction to GIS By Mulualem A. And Solomon E

 Why GIS is needed ?

Common problems of handing geospatial information:

 Geospatial data are poorly maintained

 Data and information are inaccurate
 There is no data retrieval service
 Maps and statistics are out of date
 There is no data sharing

Introduction to GIS By Mulualem A. And Solomon E

Benefits, once GIS is implemented
 Geospatial data are better maintained in a standard
format.
 Revision and updating are easier.
 Geospatial data and information are easier to search,
analyze and represent.
 Geospatial data can be shared and exchanged freely.
 Productivity of the staff improved and more efficient.
 Time and money are saved.
 Better decision can be made.

Introduction to GIS By Mulualem A. And Solomon E

 1.3. GIS Subsystems

GIS has four main functional subsystems:

 A data input subsystem
 Data storage and retrieval subsystem
 A data manipulation and analysis subsystems and
 A data output and display subsystem
1. Data input
 This system allows the user to capture, collect
and transform spatial and thematic data in to
digital form.
 The data inputs are usually derived from a
combination of hard copy maps, aerial
photographs, remotely sensed images,
Introduction to GIS By Mulualem A. And Solomon E

reports, GPS, census data, survey

 GIS Subsystem …

2. Data storage and retrieval

/Management/
 This subsystem organizes the data, spatial and
attribute, in a form which permits it to be quickly
retrieved by the user for analysis and permits
rapid and accurate updates to be made to the
database.
 This component usually involves use of a
database management system (DBMS) for
maintaining attribute data.
 Spatial data is usually encoded and maintained in
proprietary file format.
Introduction to GIS By Mulualem A. And Solomon E
 GIS subsystem
…
3. Data Manipulation and Analysis
 This subsystem allows the user to define and execute spatial and

non-spatial procedures to generate derived information.

 This subsystem is commonly thought of as the heart of a GIS, and

usually distinguishes it from other database information systems and

computer-aided drafting (CAD) systems.

4. Data output
 This subsystem allows the user to generate graphic displays,
normally maps and tabular reports representing derived
information products.

 The critical function for a GIS is however, by design, the analysis of

spatial data. Introduction to GIS By Mulualem A. And Solomon E
 Basic 4 Functions of
Functions GIS Sub-functions
Digitizing
Data Acquisition and prepossessing Editing
Topology Building
Projection Transformation
Format Conversion etc.
Database Management and Retrieval Data Archival
Hierarchical Modeling
Network Modeling
Relational Modeling
Attribute Query
Object-oriented Database etc.
Spatial Measurement and Analysis Measurement operations
Buffering
Overlay operations
Connectivity Operations etc.
Graphic Output and Visualization Scale Transformation
Generalization
Topological Map
Statistical Map etc.
Introduction to GIS By Mulualem A. And Solomon E
 1.4. Applications of GIS
Geographic Information Systems (GIS) have
different applications, and technological
advancements have significantly enhanced GIS
data, specifically how it can be used and what
can be achieved as a result.
 Thus, GIS help us to identify and to address
environmental problems by providing crucial
information on where problems occur and who
are affected by them.
 Location and extent of adverse environmental
impacts may help us to devise practical plans for
monitoring, managing, and mitigating environmental
damage.

26
Geographic Information Systems is a decision-
 1.4. Applications of GIS….
Geographic Information Systems (GIS) can
be used in various fields include:
Urban Planning
 In urban planning GIS can be used as a spatial
database and as analysis and modeling tool. It
also help the urban planner to identify and
establish zoning criteria that allows for the
expansion of urban development.
Transportation Planning
 In the Transportation sector GIS is used to plan
new road and route infrastructures, improving
the mobility across the country and or region.
27
1.4. Applications of GIS….
Disaster Risk and Management
 GIS has been used to manage environmental
problems and specifically in disaster relief. From
predicting larger natural disaster events to manage
the post-distaster actions.
Natural Resource Management
 With the help of GIS information, natural resources
can be adequately maintained and managed. It is
especially crucial for the allocation and geographic
distribution of water, forest, critical biodiversity hot-
spots, etc.
Surveying
 Using GIS in Surveying involves measuring the
28 location of objects on earth, and the use of Global
Positioning Systems (GPS) for this purpose. The data
 1.5. Applications of GIS….
Public Health
GIS is vital for planning and analysis of the
provision of health care services across states
and cities

Facilities management

Land information system

Agriculture

Environmental and natural resource

management
 Evaluate some other application areas of GIS?
29
APPLICATION AREAS OF GIS

What do we do with GIS?

• Master Planning
– Site development planning

sistant Professor)
Introduction to GIS By Mulualem A. (As
– Site management.
• Suitability Analysis: Screening & Potential
– Development site selection
– Suitable Site Selection
– Resource Potential
– Land Use Plans.
• Natural Resources Management
– Habitat Analysis
– Forest Management
– Land Conservation
– Production/extraction analysis
APPLICATION…

Other Disciplines
 Defense/Homeland Security
 Real Estate and Site Selection
 Health Care Management and Planning
 Epidemiology
 Archaeology
 Conservation/Land Management (Global, national,
regional local);
 Any other discipline that operates in or studies
phenomena across
Introduction to GIStime and [Link].
By Mulualem And Solomon E
 1.5. Capability of GIS

 What are the Capabilities of GIS

GIS can offer many capabilities. These include:

i. Storage (Geodatabase),

ii. Display (Visualization)

iii. Analytical,

iv. Modelling and

v. Geoprocessing capabilities.

Introduction to GIS By Mulualem A. And Solomon E

 Chapter
Two
Geospatial Data and
Geographic information systems
(GIS)

Introduction to GIS By Mulualem A. And Solomon E

 Content …

 Parameters of Spatial Reference System

 Geographical Data Types
 Spatial data & spatial data models
 Spatial data base management
 Topology
 Advantages and disadvantages of vector and raster
data
 Data accuracy and quality

Introduction to GIS By Mulualem A. And Solomon E

The Points that you should have to refer
from your Cartographic Course?
 Coordinate system
 Type of Coordinate system
 Map Projections
 Types of Map Projections
 Cylindrical Projection
 Conical Projection
 Azimuth Projection
 Reference Frameworks
 Distortions Caused by Map Projections
The need of map
 Choice of Map Projection
projection and
coordinate system  Datum
 Vertical and Horizontal Datum
in GIS based
 Local and Global Datum
analysis.
 Projection and transformation
In ArcGIS

Projection:- This is a mathematical process that

transforms feature locations from the earth’s
curved surface to a map’s flat surface.

Introduction to GIS By Mulualem A. And Solomon E

 Spatial Data and Geographic
Information Systems

Advanced GIS By Mulualem A. (MSc in GIS & RS)

 Typically there are two distinct types of data used
to define cartographic objects:

 1. Spatial Data-
 2. Attribute/non-spatial data -

Introduction to GIS By Mulualem A. (Assistant Professor)

 2.1) Spatial Data
Spatial data also known as geospatial (coordinate) data or
geographic information.
It is the data or information that identifies the
geographic location of features and boundaries on
earth, such as natural or constructed features,
parcels, roads, buildings and more
 It describes the absolute and relative location of geographic
or spatial features.

Spatial data is usually stored as coordinates and topology, and

is data that can be mapped. Spatial data use Cartesian
coordinates systems.

Spatial data is often accessed, manipulated or analyzed

Introduction to GIS By Mulualem A. (Assistant Professor)
 2.1.1) Types of Geographic entity

The fundamental observation is that some

phenomena manifest themselves essentially
everywhere in the study area while others
only occur in certain localities.

Therefore, geographic entities based on the

manifestations within the area of consideration;
can be broadly classified into two types.

Field entity & Object entity

Introduction to GIS By Mulualem A. And Solomon E
 Cont…

i) Geographic fields (Field entity)

 Field entities are geographic phenomena at

which every point in the study area a
value can be determined.
 They manifest themselves essentially
everywhere in the study area.
 Examples of geographic fields (Field entity)
are: temp, pressure, elevation, etc.
 These fields are continuous in nature and are
characterized by their fuzzy boundary
nature.

Introduction to GIS By Mulualem A. And Solomon E

 Cont…

ii) Geographic object (Object entity)

 As opposite to Geographic fields, many other

phenomena do not manifest themselves
everywhere in the study area, but only in
certain localities.

 These entities populate the study area and are

usually distinguishable one from the other and
can be characterized by their discrete
boundary nature.

Introduction to GIS By Mulualem A. And Solomon E

 Cont…

 The space between them is potentially

empty. Examples include: building, road,
parcel, river, etc.
 Their position in space can be determined by
a combination of:

• Location (where is it)

• Shape (what form is it?)
• Size (how big is it?)
• Orientation (in which direction is it
facing?).

Introduction to GIS By Mulualem A. And Solomon E

 Cont…

Generally:

Most natural made features are

geographic fields and they have fuzzy
boundary,

whereas most manmade phenomena are

geographic objects; they have
crisp/sharp boundary.

Introduction to GIS By Mulualem A. And Solomon E

 How can represent the real world in to
GIS Environment?
 The real world has both locational (x, y & z) and non locational
characteristics, because of this GIS handles two basic data types.
1. Spatial data type - describes the absolute and relative location of
geographic features.
2. Attribute data type - describes characteristics of the spatial
features. These characteristics can be quantitative and/or qualitative
in nature. Attribute data is often referred to as tabular data.
 Spatial data has three elements: point (or called node), line (or called
arc) and area (or called polygon).
 This three Spatial data elements or spatial (geographic features ) can
be stored (represented) in a digital environments (GIS) In two data
models, that are
 Raster data model
 Vector data model
Introduction to GIS By Mulualem A. (Assistant Professor)
 Geo-Spatial
Data

Attribute
Data

Introduction to GIS By Mulualem A. And Solomon E

 Vector data model

 Vector data model – uses discrete elements such as

points, lines and polygons to represent the geometry of
real world entities.
 Vector models are useful for storing data that has
discrete boundaries, such as country borders, land
parcels, and streets.
 The smallest spatial entity, the point, is
represented by a single (x, y) coordinate
pair.
 In the vector world, the point is the building
block from which all spatial entities are
constructed.
Introduction to GIS By Mulualem A. And Solomon E)
 Raster data model
 Raster data model – A representation of the world as a surface divided
into a regular grid of cells.
 Raster data model – identifies and represents grid cells for a
given region of interest.
 Raster cells are arrayed in a row and column pattern to
provide “Wall to Wall” coverage of a region.
 Raster model is used most commonly with variables that
change continuously across a region.
E.g. Elevation, temperature, slope, average rainfall, cumulative
ozone exposure, or soil moisture.

The raster model divides the earth into rectangular building blocks
as grid cells or pixels that are filled with the measured attribute
values. The location of each cell or pixel is defined by its row and
column numbers because of this Raster data structures do not
provide precise locational information.
Introduction to GIS By Mulualem A. And Solomon E
 Raster Data Sources
Air Photos

Satellite
Imagery

Scanned Maps
Cells , rows & columns and cell values

cell row and cell value

column

Introduction to GIS By Mulualem A. and Solomon E

Cont.
• Suitable to represent “continuous” spatial features or
phenomena. For example
Elevation,
 precipitation,
slope and
pollutant concentration
• A raster data model may also be used to represent
discrete data, e.g. to represent land cover in an area.

Introduction to GIS By Mulualem A. (Assistant

Professor)
GIS Data Type
Raster:
• is a grid consisting of individual
cells or pixels. Each cell holds a
value (elevation, radiance,
reflectance, rainfall, or land use
type,…). the resolution of the data
is the size on the ground by each
cell.

Vector:
• points, lines, and polygons

Introduction to GIS By Mulualem A. (Assistant Professor)

RASTER AND VECTOR DATA
Raster data are described by a cell grid, one value per cell
Vector Raster

Point

Line
Zone of cells
Polygon

Introduction to GIS By Mulualem A. and Solomon E

Cont.
 Data may be converted from one conceptual view to another.
 These conversions entail some costs both computationally and
perhaps in data accuracy.

 The selection of a raster or vector conceptualization often

depends on:
 The most common operations,
 The experiences and views of the GIS users/
Expertise
The form of available data, and
The influence of the data model on data quality.
Introduction to GIS By Mulualem A. and Solomon E
Cont.
 In addition to the two main data models there are also
other data models
A triangulated irregular network (TIN) is a good
example.

 This model is often used to represent surfaces, Such

as elevations, through a combination of point, line
and area features.

Introduction to GIS By Mulualem A. and Solomon E

 Basic data structures for GIS

Vector

Raster

TIN (triangulated
irregular network)

Tabular
information
(attribute table)
Introduction to GIS By Mulualem A. and Solomon E
Characteristics of Vector Data Models

• A vector data model uses sets of coordinates and

associated attribute data to define discrete objects.

• There are three basic types of vector objects:

i. Points
Ii. Lines
Iii. Polygons
Area

Lines

Introduction to GIS By Mulualem A. and Solomon E

i. Pont Representations
• A point uses a single coordinate pair to represent the location
of an entity.

• Have no dimension.

• Some features may have real physical dimension, but for the
purpose of GIS users they may be represented as points.

• Attribute data are attached to each point

• It represents geographic features such as wells, sample

locations, or trees.

Introduction to GIS By Mulualem A. and Solomon E

 ii. Linear Representations
• Linear Features – often referred to as arcs, are
represented as lines.

• Lines typically have a starting, ending and intermediate

points to represent the shape of the linear entity.

• Starting points and end points sometimes referred to as

nodes.

• Intermediate points in a line are referred to as vertices.

Introduction to GIS By Mulualem A. and Solomon E

iii. Polygon Representations
• Area entities: are most often represented by closed
polygon.

• These polygons are formed by a set of connected

lines.

• a set of lines connected starting to ending point.

• Polygons have an interior region and may entirely

enclose other polygons in this region.

Introduction to GIS By Mulualem A. and

Solomon E
Point, Line and Area
Representations

Introduction to GIS By Mulualem A. and

Solomon E
 Advantages of Raster Data:
o Only geographic coordinates are stored in
original point at once.
o Data storage technique data analysis is usually
easy to program and quick to perform.
o It is ideally suited for mathematical modeling
and quantitative analysis.
o Discrete data e.g. forestry stands is
accommodated equally well as continuous data.
o Grid-cell systems are very compatible with
63
 Disadvantages of Raster Data
 The cell size determines the resolution at
which the data is represented.
It is especially difficult to adequately represent
linear features
 Processing of associated attribute data may
be cumbersome if large amounts of data
exists.
 Since most input data is in vector form data
must undergo vector-to-raster conversion.
 Most output maps from grid-cell systems do
not conform to high-quality cartographic needs

64
 Advantages of Vector Data:
Data can be represented at its original

resolution and form without generalization.

Graphic output is usually more aesthetically

pleasing
 Since most data, e.g. hard copy maps, is in

vector form no data conversion is required.

 Accurate geographic location of data is

maintained.
 Allows for efficient encoding of topology and as
65
 Disadvantages of Vector Data:
 The location of each vertex needs to be stored
explicitly.
 For effective analysis, vector data must be
converted into a topological structure. Hence
time taking, more intensive and tiresome.
Algorithms for manipulative and analysis
functions are complex and may be processing
intensive if the data set is large.
Continuous data such as elevation is not
effectively represented in vector form. Usually
substantial data generalization or interpolation
is required for these data layers.
66
Spatial analysis and filtering within polygons is
impossible
 SPATIAL DATA

• RASTER

• VECTOR

• Real World

Introduction to GIS By Mulualem A. and Solomon E Source: Defense Mapping School

National Imagery and Mapping Agency
2.2.) Attribute/Non-spatial Data

 Attribute data describes characteristics of the spatial

features.
These characteristics can be quantitative and/or
qualitative in nature.
Attribute data is often referred to as tabular data/
items or variables.
It is the non-spatial record or characteristics of an
entity
For example, the coordinate location of a forestry stand would
be spatial data, while the characteristics of that forestry stand,
e.g. cover group, dominant species, crown closure, height, etc.,
would be attribute data.
 Cont.
Attributes are often presented in tables, with attributes arranged
in rows and columns.
Each row corresponds to an individual spatial object, and each
column corresponds to an attribute.
Attributes data may take many forms but all
attribute data can be categorized as or 4 Level of
Measurement

A). Nominal
B). Ordinal
C). Interval
D). Ratio attributes.
Introduction to GIS By Mulualem A. and Solomon E
Introduction to GIS By Mulualem A. and Solomon E
Spatial Database Management
Before spatial database, What is a Data Base?

• A Database is a collection of related data, in a geographic aspect; -

 It represents some aspect of the real world

 It is a logical coherent collection of data

 It is designed for specific purpose and intended users.

 It can be at a variety size and complexity.

 It can be generated and maintained manually but it is

cumbersome.
Introduction to GIS By Mulualem A. and
Solomon E
Data base Management System (DBMS)

 It is a system software for creating and managing database.

 It is a collection of programs that enables you to store, modify and extract

information from a database.

There are different types of Database management system ranging from small
systems that run on personal computers to huge systems that run on mainframes.
 DBMS facilitates the processes of; -
 Defining a database
 Constructing the database
 Manipulating the database
 Querying the database
 Updating the database
Introduction to GIS By Mulualem A. and
Solomon E
Examples of Database application

The followings are examples of database applications

 Computerized library System

 Automated teller machines

 Flight reservation system

 Computerized part inventory system

Introduction to GIS By Mulualem A. and

Solomon E
Concept of Spatial Database

• A spatial database is defined as a collection of inter-related

geospatial data, that can handle and maintain a large amount of
data which is shareable between different GIS applications.

• Required functions of a spatial database are as follows.

- consistency with little or no redundancy.

- maintenance of data quality including updating
- self descriptive with metadata.
- high performance by database management system with
database language.
- security including access control.
Introduction to GIS By Mulualem A. and Solomon E
Spatial Database

 It is one type of database system but it is collection of spatial

Data only
 It offers spatial data types in its data models and query languages

 It supports spatial data types in its implementation, providing at

least spatial indexing and efficient algorithms for spatial join.
 It is a collection of inter-related geospatial data that can handle
and maintained a large amount of data which is sharable b/n d/f
GIS applications.

Introduction to GIS By Mulualem A. and

Solomon E
•Spatial Database Components

1. Entity
 It is a person, place, things or events that have its own characteristics

 In geography entity is an object or phenomena in the real world that

we are interested to store, to analysis etc.

[Link] Class
 That store in a table and row contains object and column contains
object property or characteristics.

[Link](filed)
 A character or group of character that has a specific meaning

 e.g. Name, age, grade,Introduction

sex, etc. to GIS By Mulualem A. and
Solomon E
 Spatial Database components

Entities- Rows

Attribute- Column

Attribute value

Introduction to GIS By Mulualem A. (Assistant Professor)

Characteristics of spatial data base

A spatial database is characterized by the following:

 Full detailed for the intended applications
 Positional accuracy
 compatibility with other information that may be overlain
with it
 Internal accuracy, portraying the nature of phenomena
without error
 Readily updated on a regular schedule
 Accessible to whoever needs it
Introduction to GIS By Mulualem A. and
Solomon E
Design of Spatial Database

The design of spatial database will be made by the database

manager who is responsible for the following issues:

 definition of database contents

 selection of database structure
 data distribution to users
 maintenance and updating control
 day-to-day operation

Introduction to GIS By Mulualem A. (Assistant

Professor)
Spatial Data Models
1. Hierarchical
2. Relational
3. Object-oriented
4. Network

(c) Relational model

Introduction to GIS By Mulualem A. and
Solomon E
 Topology

 It is the spatial relationship b/n adjacent or neighboring features.

 Topology is a term used around GIS that is sometimes confused with the term
“topography”. The meaning of the two terms are quite unique.
 Topography refers to the study and depiction (represent by a drowning,
planning or other act form) of physical feat uses in the landscape.
 Topology used to describe the relationship between objects or b/n physical
features
 But to secure the relationship b/n feature there are a lot of topological rules.

The main objective of topology is to ensure the data quality of the spatial

relationships and to aid in data assembling.

Introduction to GIS By Mulualem A. and Solomon E

 Important of Topology for GIS

[Link] support spatial analysis

E.g. Network analysis and Network routing (direction finding)
[Link] create dataset with better quality control, data management and gather
data integrity
[Link] can be shared across feature classes,
E.g. a river feature that defines on administrative boundary
[Link] data manipulation and analysis function would be practical or
feasible
[Link] reduce artifacts from digitization (for editing errors that was made by
GIS professionals at the time of inputting data in to GIS software)
[Link] reduce the file size requirement for storing the topological data
2.7. Data Accuracy and Quality

 The quality and accuracy of the data determines the output of any
GIS analysis.
 Editing is very important to avoiding errors.
 Several types of errors can be occurred during data input these are
I. Incompleteness of the spatial data.
II. Locational placement error of spatial data
[Link] of the spatial data
[Link] linkage b/n spatial and non-spatial data
V. Attribute data is wrong or incomplete
[Link] error Introduction to GIS By Mulualem A. and Solomon E.
 Chapter 3:
Data Sources and
Processes

Introduction to GIS By Mulualem A. and Solomon E.

 Contents ….
 Sources of data
 Geo-spatial data input
techniques
 Data querying and retrieval
 Data organization and storage
 Data editing and updating

Introduction to GIS By Mulualem A. and Solomon E.

Introduct
ion
Data collection is one of the most time consuming and expensive,
yet important, of GIS tasks.

There are many diverse sources of geographic data and many

methods are available to enter them in to a GIS.

Introduction to GIS By Mulualem A. and Solomon E.

Data collection workflow
Establishing User requirements
and developing a project plan

Identifying project Obtaining data, scanned maps, setting

success and failure up appropriate GIS environment

Correct errors and converted into digital format

improve the quality for use by a GIS.

Introduction to GIS By Mulualem A. and Solomon E.

 GIS Data collection

 The two main methods of data collection are Data

capture and Data transfer

 Data capture costs can account for up to 85% of the

costs of a GIS project.

 It is useful to distinguish between primary (Direct

measurement) and secondary (derivation from other
sources).

 Data transfer involves importing digital data from other

sources.

Introduction to GIS By Mulualem A. and Solomon E.

TYPES AND SOURCES OF DATA IN GIS

Primary data
 Primary data are those data that are developed by the individual
or organization that intends to use them or, in some cases, are
contracted out (outsourced) with specific guidelines, about how
they will be prepared.

Secondary sources are digital and analog datasets that were

originally captured for another purpose and need to be converted
into a suitable digital format for use in a GIS project.
 They are gained indirect by making use of spatial data collected
earlier, possibly by others.

Introduction to GIS By Mulualem A. and Solomon E.

Data Sources for GIS

Introduction to GIS By Mulualem A. (Assistant Professor)

Type of data Raster data Vector data
(data in the form of
an array with one
dimension)

Primary data satellite image Ground survey with

aerial photograph GPS
survey measurements

Secondary Scanned maps or Topographic maps

data photographs
Digital elevation models
from topographic map
contours

Introduction to GIS By Mulualem A. and Solomon E.

Data Entry in GIS /Geo Spatial Data Input Techniques

Data entry and management are tasks that

complement all GIS work. Data has to be
entered and stored in a proper digital format
(in the computer) to apply any GIS analysis.
Different methods are used for data input.
Data can be recorded directly from the field
in a digital format by using devices as Global
Positioning Systems (GPS) and Satellite
Imagery.
Data also can be input from analogue format
(hard copy) by mean of digitising or scanning.
Introduction to GIS By Mulualem A. and Solomon E.
Data input/entry is the operation of encoding data for inclusion
into a database or it is a process of entering information into
the system. It consumes much of the time of GIS practitioners.

There are a variety of methods used to enter data into a GIS

where it is stored in a digital format. These include:

Key board Typing

Introduction to GIS By Mulualem A. and Solomon E.

 Scanner

Digitization

Introduction to GIS By Mulualem A. and Solomon E.

Map scanning:

 Photos, maps, or typed documents can be scanned

and then saved in a format that is readable in the
GIS software.
 Scanning produces a digital image of the map by
moving an electronic detector across the map
surface.
 Accuracy of the data largely depends upon the
quality of the original map.
 After scanning, the resulting image can be improved
with various techniques of image processing.
 This may include corrections of color, brightness
and contrast,
Introduction to GIS By Mulualem [Link] removal
and Solomon E. of noise, the filling of holes
or the smoothening of lines.
Data editing and Verification

Data editing and verification is in response to the errors that

arise during the encoding of spatial and non-spatial data

The editing of spatial data is a time consuming, interactive

process that can take as long, if not longer, than the data input
process itself.

Introduction to GIS By Mulualem A. and Solomon E.

Spatial data errors
 Overshoots,
 undershoots,
 invalid polygons, and
 sliver?/overlapping polygons

Solution: Establish topological rule

Attribute data errors

e.g. missing or duplicate records

Introduction to GIS By Mulualem A. and Solomon E.

 Undershoots (1) occur when digitized vector lines that should
connect to each other don’t quite touch. Overshoots (2) happen if
a line ends beyond the line it should connect to. Slivers (3) occur
when the vertices of two polygons do not match up on their
borders.
Introduction to GIS By Mulualem A. and Solomon E.
Data Organization and Storage

Raster data organization

There are four ways to organize your raster data

(raster data models):
i. The raster dataset,
ii. the mosaic dataset,
iii. the raster catalog, and
iv. raster's as an attribute of a feature.

Introduction to GIS By Mulualem A. and Solomon E.

Raster datasets

 A raster dataset is any valid raster format

organized into one or more bands. Each band
consists of an array of pixels (cells), and each pixel
has a value.
 It's the most basic raster data storage model in
which the others are built upon—both mosaic
dataset and raster catalogs manage raster
datasets.
 Each band consists of an array of pixels (cells), and
each pixel has a value. A raster dataset has at
least one band. More than one raster dataset can
be spatially appended (mosaicked) together into a
larger, single, continuous raster dataset.
 Raster datasets can be stored in many formats,
Introduction to GIS By Mulualem A. and Solomon E.
including TIFF, JPEG 2000, Esri Grid, and MrSid.
Mosaic datasets
 A mosaic dataset is a collection of raster datasets
(images) stored as a catalog and viewed or
accessed as a single mosaicked image or
individual images (raster's). These collections can
be extremely large, both in total file size and
number of raster datasets.

Introduction to GIS By Mulualem A. and Solomon E.

Raster catalogs

 A raster catalog is a collection of raster datasets

defined in a table format in which each record
represents an individual raster dataset in the
catalog.
 A raster catalog can be large and contain
thousands of images.
 A raster catalog is typically used to display
adjacent, fully overlapping, or partially
overlapping raster datasets without having to
mosaic them into one large raster dataset.

Raster as an attribute of a feature.

Introduction to GIS By Mulualem A. and Solomon E.
Raster Storage Models

When working with multiple raster datasets,

there are four possible storage models:
i. Store each raster dataset
individually,
ii. Mosaic them into one large raster
dataset,
iii. Store them as members of a mosaic
dataset, or
iv. Store them as members of a raster
catalog.
Introduction to GIS By Mulualem A. and Solomon E.
Data Editing and Updating
• Most organizations update or change the geometry
and attribute table related to the reference data on
a regular basis. This is a basic part of keeping the
data current. All such events are done through
editing.
 For example, new subdivisions or streets might be
added, alternate names might be used for streets, or
changed. Additional regions or districts might be
added to the database, or previous errors may have
been corrected. Each of these changes will alter the
reference data.

 Generally, it is possible to edit geographic data in

GIS environment or other software packages.
Some tasks related to editing are
 Projection or coordinateIntroduction
system editing,
to GIS By Mulualem A. and Solomon E.
 Data Querying and Retrieval

 Querying by
Attribute
i. Select By
Attribute
ii. Select By
Location

Introduction to GIS By Mulualem A. and Solomon E.

GIS for Decision
Support
 Introduction To
ArcGIS 10.3

There are 6 basic ArcGIS desktop modules.

Each module contains different methods of
dealing with your GIS data. Those modules are:

 1. ArcMap;- ArcMap is the module

for interacting with map data.
In ArcMap you can display, query, classify, edit,
and analyze spatial data. The ArcMap data
frame support to display and analysis
geographic features, such as points, lines,
polygons, and raster layers.
Introduction to GIS By Mulualem A. and Solomon E.
 2. Arc Catalog :- GIS is likely to be the most data-
intensive computing application you will ever use. For
this reason, it is imperative that you become
comfortable with files and file structures. Arc Catalog is
the ArcMap module used for previewing and managing
data.

 Arc Catalog uses a hierarchical file structure, with a

number of different containers (also known as folders
or directories). Within each container may be other
containers or spatial data files, tables, or other files.

3. Arc Toolbox:- Arc Toolbox contains a number of

geoprocessing tools. (If u open Arc Toolbox) you can see
a number of different toolboxes and within each toolbox
one or more toolsets. Individual tools can be located
within toolboxes Introduction
or within to GIS By toolsets.
Mulualem A. and Solomon E.
Introduction to GIS By Mulualem A. and Solomon E.
4. Arc Scene:- Arc Scene allows you to view
data in 3 dimensions. In developed country
This model used for to visualization and
communication purposes.

5. Arc Globe :- Arc Globe is similar to the

Arc Scene, but it allows the user to load
datasets spanning part or all of the world,
and to visualize the relationships of one
place to another.

Introduction to GIS By Mulualem A. and Solomon E.

6. The Python:- is a programing
development tool like C++ or other to
develop other add-ons and tools.
Python is an easy to learn, powerful
programming language. It has efficient high-
level data structures and a simple but
effective approach to object-oriented
programming. Python’s elegant syntax and
dynamic typing, together with its interpreted
nature, make it an ideal language for
scripting and rapid application development
in many areas on most platforms. Mistaken

Introduction to GIS By Mulualem A. (Assistant Professor)

Therefore ………………
All of these 6 ArcGIS modules represent the
three basic function of GIS:-
 Data management,
 Data analysis, and
 Data output/Geo-Spatial Data Model.

In this course we will cover the four

modules in greater depth, as well as
discover some of their key functionality.
Arc Catalog, Arc Map, Arc Tool and GIS 3D
model
Introduction to GIS By Mulualem A. and Solomon E.
 Chapter 4:
Data Visualization

Introduction to GIS By Mulualem A. and Solomon E.

Content
4.1 GIS and Map
4.2 The visualization process
4.3 Mapping data
4.4 Mapping qualitative data
4.5 Mapping quantitative data
4.6 Mapping terrain elevation

Introduction to GIS By Mulualem A. and Solomon E.

4.1. GIS and Map.

 A map is a simplified, diminished, abstract, 2-D plane

representation of all or part of the earth’s surface as viewed from
vertically above.
 A map is a diminished partial or whole representation of spatial or
geographic information with a defined scale.
 A map is a representation of spatial or geographic information as
a series of thematic layers of information for an area of interest.
 GIS is the main tool to produce map.

Introduction to GIS By Mulualem A. and Solomon E. 116

CONTINUED…
 Simplified:Every thing found on the Earth’s
surface can’t be represented at a single map at a
time.
 Map is selective!
 Diminished: Things are found on the map is smaller
in size than they are actually found on the surface.
 All maps are smaller than the area they represent.
However, maps retain their relative proportions as
they do in reality.
 Maps are drawn to scale.
 Maps are reduced representations of the Earth’s
surface.
Example:
 Earth’s diameter around the Equator is about117
CONTINUED…

 Abstract: Some features of the Earth’s surface

are represented by symbols on a map.
 only selected features (layers) are displayed,
can’t show every feature in the real world
 Most maps use generally accepted symbols to
represent natural, artificial or cultural features
of the area they represent.
 Maps are symbolized.
 Map is representation of the 3-D features of
the Earth on 2D flat paper.
 Nevertheless, this does not mean that maps
couldn’t show the third dimension i.e. breadth
118
or height at all. Maps use lines or colors to do
CONTINUED…
 Plane representation: The Earth has a
relatively nearly spherical nature (Curvature)
but Map is a flat piece of paper or similar
material.
 All or part of the earth’s surface: Maps are
used to show the entire world at a time or
part of it.
 Viewed from the vertically above (from the
bird’s eye view): Maps are prepared with the
assumption that the map reader is looking at
the surface from vertically above not from an
oblique direction.
 Map Elements ; legend, scale bar, north
119
arrow, descriptive text, and a map title
Maps play a special role in GIS:
They portray logical collections of geographic
information as map layers.
They are at the heart of how GIS is used.
They are effective means of modeling and
organizing geographic information as a series of
thematic layers.

 In addition, interactive GIS maps provide the focal

point for using geographic information and bringing
that information to life.
 GIS maps are the way that GIS content is shared
among professional GIS users and with everyone
online.
120
4.2. Visualization process
The paper map has long been a powerful and
effective means of visualizing and
communicating geographic information.
In contrast to digital map or data, it is an
instance of an analog representation, or a
physical model in which the real world is
scaled.
A paper map is a source of data for geographic
databases; an analog product from a GIS; and
an effective communication tool.
Maps have been so important, particularly
prior to the development of digital map, that
many of the ideas associated with GIS are
actually inherited directly from paper maps.121
4.2. Visualization process
cont…

The activates or research process often

produces a great variety of data - some
quantitative, some qualitative, and often a
mixture of both.
Data visualization, also named as information
visualization or information design, refers to
the methodologies, tools, and modes of
representation (i.e., products) involved in the
process of visually communicating data to
others.
Data can be visually communicated in many
ways, ranging from a simple table of numbers 122
to complex and highly sophisticated charts and
4.2. Visualization process
cont…

In GIS and Remote Sensing, the data

visualization is frequently presented in maps
and web applications.
Data visualization refers to the visual
representation of data sources in order to
communicate information clearly and
efficiently.
Visual analytics refers to the practice of using
visualizations to perform data analysis.

123
4.3 Mapping Data
Arc Map provides two ways to view a map:
i. data view and
ii. layout view.
Each view allows you to view and interact with the
map, but in different ways.
Data view provides a geographic window for
exploring, displaying, and querying the data on
your map. You work in real-world coordinates and
measurements in data view.
In layout view, you work with the map layout
elements, such as titles, north arrows, scale bars
legend, grids, text and others along with the data
frame, all of which are arranged on a page.

124
4.4 Mapping Qualitative Data (Descriptive Data)
Those maps which show the areal spread of elements
without taking in to consideration their quantities are
called qualitative areal distribution maps.
Thus, these maps are only qualitative i.e. they are purely
descriptive maps containing no measurable facts.
Qualitative maps show the spatial distribution of
geographic information by using color tints, symbols,
index letters, & abbreviation.

Methods of making Qualitative maps:

A) Chorochromatic method
It is also called color or tint Method.
Chorochromatic maps are very common and effective
method used in qualitative maps to show the geographical
distribution of various features by means of different color
or tint. 125
Show the spatial distribution of geographic elements, using
B) Choro schematic method
Non-quantitative
areal distributions are also
shown by symbols or index letters.
Since these symbols are not drawn to scale,
these maps are termed as non-quantitative.

For example, the spatial distribution of crops,

minerals, and vegetations can be shown on
maps by their initial letters such as C for coffee
or cotton, W for wheat, F, for forest, I, for iron
The pictures often symbolized are pictures of
the real element.
They are relatively simple to understand.

126
4.5 Mapping Quantitative Data
Quantitative areal maps or Statistical
Maps are those maps, which show the variation
in the distribution of the value of an element by
symbols, such as dots, shads, isopleths,
squares, circles, and spheres.
There are five ways of representing statistical
data on the map.
i. Dot method
ii. Area Shading (choropleth) method
iii. Isolines (isopleth method)
iv. Diagrammatic method (line graphs, bars,
proportional circles, squares,
rectangles, Proportional spheres, cubes,
blocks and others (cartogram, and arrows).
v. Flow maps. 127
A. DOT MAPS
 Dot Maps are used to represent absolute or
actual value (quantities) on maps with the help
of dots.
 All dots on the map have equal size having a
specific fixed quantity/ value.
 it is the simplest and most commonly used
method of representing data on quantitative
areal distribution maps.
 Such maps are commonly used to show the
distribution of such phenomena as population,
livestock, economic products or commodities.

128
Dot Map, Example, Cattle Distribution

129
B. Choropleth Maps Or Shaded Maps
 Choropleth maps are used to represent the variation
in the distribution of average values per unit area by
using graded or proportional shading.
 Used to show the distribution of average values
such as population density, cropping intensity, etc.
through varied shadings.
 The type or intensity of the shading reflects
variation in quantity.
 Lighter shades give lower density, while dark shades
suggest higher density.

Choropleth Maps,
Example, Population
Density

130
C. Isopleth Maps
 Isopleths are lines of equal value or magnitude.

 Isopleths are also called, isolines or isometric lines.

 The lines pass through points at which the value of a particular

phenomenon is equal.
 Isopleth maps are quantitative distribution maps that use lines
that pass through points of equal value.
 Isopleth maps are more suitable for mapping the distribution of
continuous statistical data like temperature, precipitation,
height/elevation, etc.

Isopleth Map,
Example,
Temperature
Distribution

131
D. Diagrammatic Or Graphic Maps
 Diagrammatic maps are
those distribution maps
on which the regional
variations in the
distribution of an
element or quantity are
shown by diagrams.
 The choice of symbols
used for depicting the
regional variation of an
element or quantity
depends largely on the
range of the data used.

132
E. Flow Maps
 Flow maps are represented by proportional
arrows.
 Proportional arrows are lines of different
thickness, used to represent movement or flow of
various items from one place to another.
 Areused to show the degree or volume of
movements of goods, traffic flow, migration of
people, direction of exports and imports, etc.

Flow Maps, Example,

Economic Flow

133
4.6 Mapping Terrain Elevation

The elevation value of the real world represented in GIS

environment by

 Triangular irregular networks (TIN),

 Terrain surfaces or digital elevation models (DEMs),
Triangular irregular
networks (TIN)

Triangulated irregular network (TIN) is a digital

data structure used in a GIS for the representation of a
surface.

A TIN is a vector based representation of the physical

land surface or sea bottom, made up of irregularly
distributed nodes and lines with three dimensional
coordinates (x, y, and z) that are arranged in a
network of non-overlapping triangles.

TINs are often derived from the elevation data of a

rasterized digital elevation model (DEM).
Cont.….
TIN models are
 less widely available than raster surface models and
 more expensive to build and process.
 The cost of obtaining good source TIN data is high,
and processing TINs tends to be less efficient than
processing raster data because of the complex data
structure.

TINs are typically used for high-precision modeling

of smaller areas, such as in engineering
applications, where they are useful because they
allow calculations of plan metric area, surface area,
and volume.
Digital Elevation Models (DEM)
The most common digital data of the shape of the earth's
surface is cell-based digital elevation models (DEMs).
The term "Digital Elevation Model" has both generic and
specific meanings. In general, a DEM is any raster
representation of a terrain surface (earth surface in terms of
its elevation).

But The accuracy of this, representation of the earth by using

DEM data is determined by
The spatial resolution of data.
 data type (integer or floating point)
The actual sampling of the surface when creating the
original DEM and finally
Scale it terms of coverage
Comparison of TIN with DEM.
1. Points of a TIN are distributed variably based on an
algorithm that determines which points are most
necessary to an accurate representation of the terrain but
in DEM uses continues surface in terms of point.
2. In TIN model data input is flexible and fewer points need to
be stored than in a DEM with regularly distributed points.
3. TIN may be less suited than a DEM raster for certain kinds
of GIS applications, such as analysis of a surface's slope
and aspect.
4. TIN enables the representing of terrain in three dimensions
with its specification and boundary limitation but DEM does
not determine the declination(specific boundary) area.
5. TIN is more accurate for smaller coverage than DEM and
the reciprocal is true for large coverage.
 Chapter 5:
Web Technology for GIS
and Mapping

Introduction to GIS By Mulualem A. and Solomon E.

 5.1. Principle of Internet and the Web

The internet; - is a global system of interconnected computer networks

that use the internet protocol suite (TCP/IP) to link devices worldwide.

 The internet carries an intensive range of information resources and

services.

 The most widely used part of the internet is the worldwide web
(WWW).

The Web also written as a web site, it is a collection of related web pages,
including multimedia content, typical identified with a common domain name
and publication on at least one web server.
Introduction to GIS By Mulualem A. and Solomon E.
 The difference b/n Internet and Web

The internet
 It is a massive network of networks, a networking infrastructure,
 It connects millions of computers to gather globally, forming a network in
which any computer can communicate with any other computer as long as
they are both connected to the internet.

The Web
 The web is a way of accessing information over the medium of the internet.
 It is an information sharing model that is built on top of the internet
 The web uses the HTTP (Hypertext transfer protocol) protocol and
browsers like fire fox or opera browser or internet explorer to access
web documents called web pages.
Introduction to GIS By Mulualem A. and Solomon E.
The term internet and the Web are synonyms in the mind many users but
they are different meanings: -

 The internet is a massive network of networks that connects millions

of computers in world wide. Computers connect to the internet can
communicate with one another with number of protocols such as
HTTP, SMTP (simple mail Transfer protocol) and FTP (file transfer
protocol)
 The web is a system of interlinked hypertext document and programs
that can be accessed Via the internet primarily by using HTTP.
 The web is the “face” of the internet.

Introduction to GIS By Mulualem A. and Solomon E.

 What is a Web GIS?
 Web GIS, a combination of World Wide Web (WWW)
and geographical information systems (GIS), is a
paradigm for how people everywhere access and
use geographic information.
 Its functionality is made available through a regular
web browser and an integrated viewer with a user-
friendly GIS interface.
 It is therefore intended for a broad audience,
including public users who may know nothing about
GIS as defined by its simple, intuitive and
convenient design which makes it typically very
easy to use.

Introduction to GIS By Mulualem A. and Solomon E.

 Common Key features
 In-built tools in the WebGIS such as the
‘Zoom-in/out’, ‘Pan’, ‘Identify’ and ‘Measure’ tools
allow users to interact with the map interface.
Additionally, customized tools are provided which
enable users to do the following:
1. Search for Land Parcels and Beacons in the custom-
built search engine
2. Save map images to PDF or GeoTIFF
3. Find best path (shortest path to a location)
4. View parcels with approved planning applications
5. Add coordinates (Display a location or find a location
through coordinates)
 Most of the time the WebGIS does not require users
to sign-up and has no Introduction
hidden fees.A. and Solomon
to GIS By Mulualem It [Link]
Characteristics of Web GIS

i. A global reach
ii. A large number of users
iii. Better cross-platform capability
iv. Low cost as averaged by the number of users
v. Easy to use for end users
vi. Diverse applications

Introduction to GIS By Mulualem A. and Solomon E.

Principle of Open Standards and Web GIS

[Link] Service
 Base map layers
 Mission-critical operational information
for performing special tasks
 Geo-spatial analytical models
 For information extraction like, queries,
graphs and reports
[Link] services
[Link] processing services
[Link] services
[Link] services
Introduction to GIS By Mulualem A. and Solomon E.
Function of WEB GIS

1. Mapping(visualization) and query.

2. Collection of Geo-spatial
information
3. Geo-spatial Analysis

Introduction to GIS By Mulualem A. (Assistant Professor)

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Introduction to GIS By Mulualem A. (Assistant Professor)