ELECTRICITY

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• Charge carrier: A charged particle that contributes to an electric current, these may
be electrons, protons or ions

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• Quantised: a quantity is said to be quantised when it has a definite minimum
magnitude and always comes in multiples of that magnitude
• Electric Char
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Q rate of flow of electric charges past a point
current: It is the
Þ Current =ge
Time
=> tI = => Q = It

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Where Q is the charge that flows during a time t, and I is the current.

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• The SI unit of electric current is Ampere ( A )
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• SI unit of charge is Columb ( C )

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Þ One Columb is the charge that flows past a point in a circuit in a time of 1s when the
current is 1 A

Note: As a current is the flow of charged particles called charge carriers.

• Electron each carries a tiny negative charge of -1.6×10-19, the magnitude
s of the charge
is known as elementary charge represented by e, so:
elementary charge = e = 1.6×10-19 C
• Protons are positively charged with a charge +e , this is equal and opposite to that of
an electron ( -e )

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• Ions carry charges that are multiples of +e and –e

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Conclusion: electric charge is quantised. Any charge Q is an integral multiple of e, so Q
= Ne [ N= 1,2,3,…….. ]

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volume in a material
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Number density ( n ) : the number of charge carriers such as free electrons, per unit

there is a current in a conductor

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Mean drift velocity ( v ) : the average speed of a collection of charged particles when

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An equation for Current
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Figure on the right shows a length I of a wire, with cross-sectional area A, along
which there is current I. If n is the number density, then:
Figure: A current I in a wire of cross-

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sectional area A. The charge carriers are
Char
number of electrons = number density × Volume of wire mobile conduction electrons with mean
ge drift velocity v.
= n × A × I
n × A × l× l
Charge of electrons
Time
e = n × A ×I×e
t
As current = t s

I= => =v where v = drift velocity

Equation for electric current I = n A v e

Note : the moving charge carriers that make up a current are not always electrons. They
might be ions ( positive or negative ) whose charge q is a multiple of e, hence the
equation in more general way can be written as, I = n A v q
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Note : equation for electric current I = n A nv Ae,e v=
v
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1. If the current increases , the drift velocity v must increase So, =

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constant1
A is thinner, the electrons move quickly for a given current
2. If the wire
i.e v α => Av = constant
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( there are fewer electros in a thinner wire so individual electrons must travel
more quickly )
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n
3. In a material with a lower density of electrons ( smaller n ) , the mean drift

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velocity must be greater for a given current => v α so, vn = constant

Figure: The mean drift velocity of

electrons depends on the current, the
cross-sectional area and the electron
density of the material.
Potential difference (p.d.) : the potential difference between two points is the energy
transferred per unit charge as it moves from one point to other point.
Energy
Potential difference =
transferred

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Charge
W
V = => W = QV

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Q

Þ Energy transferred = charge × potential difference

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(work done) SI unit of p.d. is VoltFigure:
( V )Measuring
Assume that power supply has negligible internal resistance, when switch is open, the

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voltages in a circuit. Note
that each voltmeter is
voltmeter placed across the power supply measures 12V, with closed switch, the across the
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connected

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voltmeter component.

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across the power supply still measures 12V and the voltmeter across the resistors
measures
8V and 4V.
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e.m.f : The energy transferred per unit charge in driving charge round a complete
Potential
difference
V current
Electric resistance : It is Ithe ratio of potential difference to current. Figure: Connecting an
resistance = ammeter and a
voltmeter to
determine the
R = => V = IR resistance of a
metallic conductor in
Where, R is resistance of the component, V is the potential difference across the
a circuit
• The unit of resistance is ohm (Ω) , the ohm is equivalent to 1 volt per ampere
1 Ω = 1 VA-1

drives a current of 1 ampere through it.

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Ohm : the ohm is the resistance of a component when a potential difference of 1 volt

Energy
Electrical power : Power =
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transferred
W TimeQVtaken

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Pt = t = as Q = It ( energy
transferred = workdone W )

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VIt

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t

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P = = P = VI

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As, V = IR => P = ( IR ) I = I2R

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P = I2R => I = V/R => P = V2/R
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 Kirchhoff’s Laws
Kirchhoff’s First Law
• Statement
The sum of the currents entering any point in a circuit is equal to the sum of the
currents leaving that same point.
• This law is an expression of the conservation of charge.
• Electric charge can neither be created nor destroyed, i.e. the total amount of
charge entering a point must exit the point.
The current into point P must equal to the current out i.e. I1= I2
F
For the point Q in the second diagram, I1= I2 +AI3
We can write this law as an equation,

Kirchhoff’s Second Law R5

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• Statement
The sum of the e.m.f.s around any loop is equal to the sum of the p.d.s around the loop.
• This law is an expression of the conservation of energy.
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Muhammad Javed Solehri

For the loop ABCDEFA
e.m.f.s : Starting with the cell of e.m.f. E1 and working anticlockwise around the loop
(because E1 is ‘pushing current’ anticlockwise):

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sum of e.m.f.s = E1 + E2 − E3

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Note that E3 is opposing the other two e.m.f.s.

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p.d.s : Starting from the same point, and working anticlockwise again:

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sum of p.d.s = I1R1 − I2R2 − I2R3 + I1R4

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Note that the direction of current I2 is clockwise, so the p.d.s that involve I2 are negative.

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So by Kirchhoff’s second law , around any loop , sum of the e.m.f.s = sum of the p.d.s.

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Combination of Resistors : we can combine two or more resistors in a circuit

• Resistors in series: two resistors of resistances R1 and R2 are connected in series

(in one continuous path) as shown in the fig. on next slide. According
s to Kirchhoff’s
first law, the current in each resistors is the same. The p.d. V across the combination
is equal to the sum of the p.d.s across the two resistors.
V = V1 + V2
Since V = IR ( R is the total Resistance of the combination )
V1= IR1
V2= IR2
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Figure: Resistors in series.

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So IR = IR1 + IR2
R = R 1 + R2

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• For three or more resistors, the total resistance R. R = R 1 + R2 + R3 (R
sometimes can be written as Rtotal )

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• Resistors in parallel : For two resistors of Resistances R1 and R2 connected in

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parallel as shown in fig, current divides between the resistors, by using Kirchhoff’s
first law, we can write it I = I1 + I2

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By applying Kirchhoff’s second law to the loop that contains two resistors,
I1R1 – I2R2 = 0 V( because there
1/R is
= no
1/R1source
+ of e.m.f in the loop )
1/R2
This equation states that the two resistors have the R = Rp.d.
same 1R 2 V
across them, so we can
R1 + R 2 s
write I = V/R , I1 = V/R1 , I2 = V/R2
R = product Figure: Resistors connected
Substituting in I = I1 + I2 sum in parallel
V/R = V/R1 + V/R2 => 1/R = 1/R1 + 1/R2
Total resistances R of three or more resistors in parallel is given
I-V characteristic: a graph of current against voltage for a particular component of an
electric circuit
• The I-V characteristic for a metallic conductor

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Þ The straight line passing through the origin shows that the resistance of the
conductor remains
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constant, as resistance is the ratio of the voltage to the current, remains the same i.e R

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= V/I
(if we double the current, voltage will also double)
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Þ By reversing the connection to the resistor, the p.d. across it will be reversed ( i.e.
becomes –ve ),
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the current will be in opposite direction, it is also –ve. [ mostly only +ve side of the
graph is shown in diagram ]

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Ohm’s law : A conductor obeys ohm’s law if the current in it is directly proportional to
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the potential difference across its ends.
• A component that obeys ohm’s law is described as ohmic component. For ohmic
component, ratio V/I is constant, so R = constant , a metallic conductor can be
considered ohmic
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Non-ohmic: a component that does not obey ohm’s law can be described as non-ohmic
Figure : The I–V characteristic for a
I-V characteristics for a filament lamp: (non-ohmic component) filament lamp.
The I-V characteristic is shown in the figure on the right.
• The line passes through the origin
Þ Resistance of a lamp increases because its temperature increases when current
through it increases.

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I-V characteristics of a semi conductor diode: (non-ohmic component)I
is
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• A diode is any component that allows electric current in only one direction. Its symbol

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• When diode is connected in forward-biased i.e. +ve of the diode is connected to the

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+ve of the cell, the diode conducts and has fairly low resistance
• When diode is connected in reverse-biased i.e. +ve of diode is connected to the –ve of

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the cell, the current through diode is almost zero and it has almost infinite resistance.

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• The minimum forward potential difference across diode at Figure:
starts to conduct is known as threshold voltage. Most modern
which The
it current against
potential difference (I–V)
diodes for a diode.
characteristic
are made from silicon and starts conducting when there is a p.d. of about
0.6V across them (as shown in fig. on left) .
• Diodes are used as rectifier. They allow current to pass in one direction only and can be
used to convert alternating current into direct current
• LED’s (light emitting diodes) are used as indicator lamps to show when an appliance is
switched on. They are more energy-efficient, cheaper to run, so the threshold voltage
at LED starts to conduct and

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emit light is higher than 0.6V and depends on the color of light it emits (maybe
Figtaken
^ LED symbol
to
be about 2V)

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the
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The light dependent resistor ( LDR ): a component whose resistance decreases when
Fig ^ LDR symbol

light intensity increases.

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• Thermistors: (thermal-resistors) Thermistors are components that are designed to

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have a resistance that changes rapidly with temperature
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• NTC thermistor (negative temperatureFigcoefficient):
^ thermistor
symbol
decreases rapidly when the temperature increases
a device whose resistance

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1. In our questions/discussion “thermistor” will be assumed as negative
Figure: Resistance plotted
against light intensity for an
LDR.

temperature coefficient ( NTC ) as positive temperature coefficient ( PTC ) is not in our

syllabus. s

2. Thermistors and LDRs are usually used as sensors

Resistivity:
For a metal in the shape of a wire, R depends on the following factors:
• length L
• cross-sectional area A
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• the material the wire is made from

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• the temperature of the wire.

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At a constant temperature, the resistance is directly proportional to the length of the

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wire and inversely proportional to its cross-sectional area.
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R α L/A => R = L/A

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ρ (rho) is known as resistivity of the material, it depends on the material of the wire.

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Resistivity (ρ): a property of a material, it is a measure of its electrical resistance, its SI
unit is ohm meter (Ωm)
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Internal resistance: the internal resistance of a source of e.m.f (power supply or cell) is
the resistance inherent in the source itself, some energy is transferred into other forms
as work is done in driving the charge through the source itself. It is represented by r. For
a power supply, this maybe due to wires and components inside, for a cells , an internal
resistance is due to the chemicals within it.
Terminal p.d: It is the potential difference across the terminal of a source and is
dependent on the current that is taken from the source.

decrease as the supplied current increases

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Þ The graph shows how the voltage across the terminals of a power supply might

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Note: A cell of e.m.f E and internal resistance r is connected to an external
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resistor of resistance R ( R and r are in series with each other)
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e.m.f = E = I (R +r)
E = IR+Ir

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The terminal p.d. V across the cell is always same as the p.d. across the external resistor.
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So, V = IR, this will be less than e.m.f E by an amount Ir, the quantity Ir is the potential

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difference across the internal resistance r.
So, E = V + Ir
V = E – Ir
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By plotting V on the y-axis and I on the x-axis, a straight line should result:
V = E + ( -r )I (where gradient = -r, y-intercept = E)
y = mx + c

Terminal p.d = e.m.f – p.d across the internal resistance Figure: E and r can be
found from this graph.
• A voltmeter connected across the cell registers the e.m.f of the cell when no current is
passing through the cell.

1. When s-open, reading of voltmeter = e.m.f =E

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2. When s-closed, reading of voltmeter = terminal p.d = V
Þ E-V = p.d across the internal resistance = Ir
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Potential divider: a circuit that splits the potential difference ( V ) from a source

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into two parts. The output voltage depends on the relative values of R 1 and R2
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Vin = I V
( inR1 + R2 )

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R + R2

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I = 1
R2
R1 + R 2

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p.d. across R2 = Vout = IR2 = . Vin

Potential divider equation = Vout =

=> If Vout = p.d. across R1, Vout =

Potentiometer: A device used for comparing potential differences. A potentiometer
consists of a piece of resistance wire, usually 1m in length, stretched horizontally

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between two points. A driver cell ( e.m.f = Eo)is connected across the length of wire. If
we want to measure the e.m.f of Ex of cell X ( this must have a value less than Eo ), the

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positive terminal of cell X is connected to point A ( both cells have their positive

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terminals connected to A). A lead from the -ve terminal is connected to a sensitive

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galvanometer and the lead from the other terminal of the galvanometer ends with a
jockey.
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• When the jockey is positioned at Y, the galvanometer gives zero deflection, showing

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that there is no current passing through it. This can only happen if the potential

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difference across the length of the wire AY is equal to the e.m.f of the cell X, we can

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say potentiometer is balanced, if the balanced point was exactly half-way along the
wire, we would say that e.m.f of X was half of the driver cell.

• This technique finding a point where there is a zero reading is known as a null
method.
• Measure the length AY, unknown e.m.f of EX can be determined
=> EX = (AY/AB) Eo ,
where Eo is the e.m.f of the driver cell (known).
Comparing two e.m.f.s using a potentiometer:
If we want to compare e.m.f.s Ex and Ey of two cells x and y, each connected in turn to the

of the two cells will be equal

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potentiometer, giving balance prints at C and D (as shown in fig), the ratio of the e.m.f.s

to theEratio
x
of the two lengths AC and AD
AC
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Ey AD

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=

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If one of the cells used has an accurately known e.m.f, the other can be calculated with two

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Figure : Comparing
the
E
e.m.f.s using a
potentiometer.

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same degree of accuracy.

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Note: when bridge is balanced, i.e. voltmeter reading is zero, then the ratios between
the resistances at arm are equal, so P/Q = R/S => PS = QR
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