INTRODUCTION

Electromagnetics (EM) may be regarded as the study

of the interactions between electric charges at rest and in
motion. It entails the analysis, synthesis, physical
interpretation, and application of electric and magnetic fields.

Electromagnetics (EM) is a branch of physics or

electrical engineering in which electric and magnetic
phenomena are studied.
EM principles find applications in various allied
disciplines such as microwaves, antennas, electric machines,
satellite communications, bio-electromagnetics, plasmas,
nuclear research, fiber optics, electromagnetic interference
and compatibility, electromechanical energy conversion,
radar meteorology, and remote sensing.
 EM devices include transformers,
electric relays, radio/TV, telephones, electric
motors, transmission lines, waveguides,
antennas, optical fibers, radars, and lasers.

The design of these devices requires

thorough knowledge of the laws and principles
of EM.
 SCALARS AND VECTORS
A quantity can be either a scalar or a vector.
SCALAR:
A scalar is a quantity that is completely specified
by its magnitude.(has only magnitude)
Quantities such as time, mass, distance,
temperature, entropy, electric potential, and
population are scalars.
VECTOR:
A vector is a quantity that is described by
both magnitude and direction.
Vector quantities include velocity, force,
momentum, acceleration displacement, and
electric
field intensity
NOTE: Another class of physical quantities is called tensors, of
which scalars and vectors are special cases. For most of the time,
we shall be concerned with scalars and vectors.
EM theory is essentially a study of some
particular fields:
A field is a function that specifies a
particular quantity everywhere in a region.
A field may indicate variation of a quantity
throughout space and perhaps with time. If the
quantity is scalar (or vector), the field is said to be a
scalar (or vector) field.
UNIT VECTOR:
A vector A has both magnitude and direction. The magnitude
of A is a scalar written as A or |A| .
A unit vector aA along A is defined as a vector whose
magnitude is unity (i.e., 1) and its direction is along A;
that is,

Note that|aA|=1. Thus we may write A as

A = A aA
where Ax, Ay, and Az are called the components of A in the x-, y-, and z-
directions, respectively; ax, ay, and az are unit vectors in the x-, y-, and z-
directions, respectively.
The magnitude of vector A is given by

and the unit vector along A is given by

POSITION AND DISTANCE VECTORS

POSITION VECTOR:
The position vector rP (or radius vector) of point P is
defined as the directed distance from the origin O to P;
that is,

The position vector of point P is useful in defining its position

in space
DISTANCE VECTOR:
The distance vector is the displacement from one point to
another.

If two points P and Q are given by (xP, yP, zP) and (xQ,
yQ, zQ), the distance vector (or separation vector) is the
displacement from P to Q as shown in Figure
VECTOR MULTIPLICATION:
When two vectors A and B are multiplied, the result is
either a scalar or a vector depending on how they are
multiplied. Thus there are two types of vector multiplication:
1. Scalar (or dot) product: A.B
2. Vector (or cross) product: AxB
Multiplication of three vectors A, B, and C can result in either:
3. Scalar triple product: A.(B x C)
4. Vector triple product: A x(BxC)
Dot Product
The dot product of two vectors A and B, written as
A .B, is defined geometrically as the product of the
magnitudes of A and B and the cosine of the smaller angle
between them when they are drawn tail to tail.
 where ѲAB is the smaller angle between A and B. The
result of A.B is called either the scalar product because it is
scalar or the dot product due to the dot sign.
If A (Ax, Ay, Az) and B (Bx, By, Bz), then

which is obtained by multiplying A and B component by

component. Two vectors A and B are said to be orthogonal
(or perpendicular) with each other if A .B=0.
dot product obeys the following:
Cross Product:
The cross product of two vectors A and B, written as Ax B, is a
vector quantity whose magnitude is the area of the
parallelogram formed by A and B and is in the direction of
advance of a right-handed screw as A is turned into B.
Thus,

where an is a unit vector normal to the plane

containing A and B. The direction of an is taken as the
direction of the right thumb when the fingers of the right hand
rotate from A to B. Alternatively, the direction of an is taken as
that of the advance of a right-handed screw as A is turned into
B as shown in Figure.
 The vector multiplication is called cross product owing
to the cross sign; it is also called vector product because the
result is a vector. If A =(Ax, Ay, Az) and B =(Bx, By, Bz), then

which is obtained by “crossing” terms in cyclic permutation,

hence the name “cross product.”
cross product has the following basic
properties:
Scalar Triple Product:
Given three vectors A, B, and C, we define the scalar
triple product as

Since the result of this vector multiplication is scalar, is called

the scalar triple product.
Vector Triple Product:

For vectors A, B, and C, we define the vector triple

product as

which may be remembered as the “bac-cab” rule. It

should be noted that
 LAPLACIAN OF A SCALAR
For practical reasons, it is expedient to
introduce a single operator that is the composite
of gradient and divergence operators. This
operator is known as the Laplacian.
The Laplacian of a scalar field V, written as
is the divergence of the gradient of V.
Notice that the Laplacian of a scalar field is
another scalar field.
In cylindrical coordinates,
 We have considered only the Laplacian of a
scalar. Since the Laplacian operator is a scalar
operator, it is also possible to define the Laplacian
of a vector A. In this context, A should not
be viewed as the divergence of the gradient
of A. Rather, A is defined
as the gradient of the divergence of A minus the
curl of the curl of A. That is,

This equation can be applied in finding A in any

coordinate system.
INTRODUCTION:
Electrostatics is a fascinating subject that
has grown up in diverse areas of application.
Electric power transmission, X-ray machines, and
lightning protection are associated with strong
electric fields and will require a knowledge of
electrostatics to understand and design suitable
equipment.
Almost all computer peripheral devices,
with the exception of magnetic memory, are
based on electrostatic fields.
 In medical work, diagnosis is often carried
out with the aid of electrostatics, as
incorporated in electrocardiograms,
electroencephalograms, and other recordings of
the electrical activity of organs including eyes,
ears, and the stomach.
In industry, electrostatics is applied in a
variety of forms such as paint spraying,
electrodeposition, electrochemical machining,
and separation of fine particles.
Electrostatics is used in agriculture to sort
seeds, for direct spraying of plants, to measure
the moisture content of crops, to spin cotton,
and for speedbaking bread and smoking meat.
 COULOMB’S LAW
Coulomb’s law is an
experimental law formulated in
1785 by Charles Augustin de
Coulomb
It deals with the force a
point charge exerts on another
point charge. By a point charge
we mean a charge that is
located on a body whose
dimensions are much smaller
than other relevant dimensions
One coulomb is approximately equivalent to
electrons
Coulomb’s law states that the force F
between two point charges Q1 and Q2 is:
1. Along the line joining them
2. Directly proportional to the product Q1Q2 of the
charges
3. Inversely proportional to the square of the
distance R between them.
Expressed mathematically,

where k is the proportionality constant whose

value depends on the choice of system of units.

The constant Ԑo is known as the Permittivity

of free space (in farads per meter) and has the
value
Coulomb vector force on point charges Q1 and
Q2.
 If point charges Q1 and Q2 are located at
points having position vectors r1 and r2, then
the force F12 on Q2 due to Q1 is given by
[Link] shown in Figure, the force F21 on Q1 due
to Q2 is given by
F21=-F12
Since aR21 = -aR12
2. Like charges (charges of the same sign)
repel each
other, while unlike charges attract.

3. The distance R between the charged

bodies Q1 and
Q2 must be large compared with the linear

dimensions of the bodies; that is, Q1 and Q2

must be
point charges.
4. Q1 and Q2 must be static (at rest).
6. Charges cannot be created or destroyed;
the
quantity of total charge remains constant.
If we have more than two point charges, we
can use the principle of superposition to
determine the force on a particular charge. The
principle states that if there are N charges Q1, Q2,
. . . , QN located, respectively, at points with
position vectors r1, r2, . . . rN, the resultant
force F on a charge Q located at point r is the
vector sum of the forces exerted on Q by
each of the charges Q1, Q2, . . . , QN. Hence,
 ELECTRIC FIELD INTENSITY
The electric field intensity (or electric
field strength) E is the force that a unit
positive charge experiences when placed in an
electric field.

Thus

Or Simply

For Q > 0, the electric field intensity E is

obviously in the direction of the force F and
is measured in newtons per coulomb or volts per
meter
 The electric field intensity at point r due to
a point charge located at r’ is readily obtained
from above all eqs. As

For N point charges Q1, Q2, . . . , QN located at

r1, r2, . . . , rN, the electric field intensity at
point r is obtained as
GAUSS’S LAW IN DIFFERENTIAL
FORM

We will now apply the methods of

Gauss’s law to a slightly different type of
problem—one that may not possess any
symmetry at all. At first glance, it might
seem that our case is hopeless, for
without symmetry, a simple gaussian
surface cannot be chosen such that the
normal component of D is constant or
zero everywhere on the surface.
Without such a surface, the integral
cannot be evaluated.
 There is only one way to
circumvent these difficulties and that
is to choose such a very small closed
surface that D is almost constant over
the surface, and the small change in D
may be adequately represented by
using the first two terms of the
Taylor’s-series expansion for D. The
result will become more nearly
correct as the volume enclosed by the
gaussian surface decreases, and we
intend eventually to allow this volume
to approach zero.
 This example also differs from
the preceding ones in that we will not
obtain the value of D as our answer
but will instead receive some
extremely valuable information about
the way D varies in the region of our
small surface. This leads directly to
one of Maxwell’s four equations
Gauss’s Law Applied to a Differential
Volume Element

Consider any point P, shown in Figure , located by

a rectangular coordinate system.
 The value of D at the point P may be
expressed in rectangular components,
D0 = Dx0ax + Dy0ay + Dz0az. We choose
as our closed surface the small
rectangular box, centered at P, having sides
of lengths Δx, Δy, and Δz, and apply Gauss’s
law

In order to evaluate the integral over

the closed surface, the integral must be
broken up into six integrals, one over each
face,
 Consider the first of these in detail.
Because the surface element is very small, D
is essentially constant (over this portion of
the entire closed surface) and
 where Δv = ΔxΔyΔz. The expression is
an approximation which becomes better as
Δv becomes smaller, and in the following
section we shall let the volume Δv approach
zero. For the moment, we have applied
Gauss’s law to the closed surface surrounding
the volume element Δv and have as a result
the approximation stating that
 ELECTRIC POTENTIAL
Suppose we wish to move a point
charge Q from point A to point B in an
electric field
E as shown in Figure.

From Coulomb’s law, the force on Q is

F=QE so that the work done in
displacing the charge by dl is
 The negative sign indicates that
the work is being done by an external
agent. Thus the total work done, or the
potential energy required, in moving Q
from A to B, is

Dividing W by Q gives the potential

energy per unit charge. This quantity,
denoted by VAB, is known as the
potential difference between points A
and B. Thus
1. In determining VAB, A is the initial
point while B is the final point.
2. If VAB is negative, there is a loss in
potential energy in moving Q from A to
B; this
implies that the work is being done by the
field. However, if VAB is positive, there is a
gain in potential energy in the movement;
an external agent performs the work.
3. VAB is independent of the path taken
(to be shown a little later).
4. VAB is measured in joules per
coulomb, commonly referred to as volts
(V).
 where VB and VA are the potentials
(or absolute potentials) at B and A,
respectively. Thus the potential difference
VAB may be regarded as the potential at B
with reference to A. In problems involving
point charges, it is customary to choose
infinity as reference; that is, we assume
the potential at infinity is zero.
 The potential at any point is the
potential difference between that point
and a chosen point (or reference point)
at which the potential is zero.
In other words, if one assumes
zero potential at infinity, the
potential at a distance r from the
point charge is the work done per
unit charge by an external agent in
transferring a test charge from
infinity to that point. Thus
 If the point charge Q is not located at
the origin but at a point whose position vector
is r’, the potential V(x, y, z) or simply
V(r) at r becomes
For n point charges Q1, Q2, . . . , Qn
located at points with position vectors r1,
r2, . . . , rn, the potential at r is
 For continuous charge distributions, we
replace Qk with charge element ρL dl, ρS dS,
or ρv dv and the summation becomes an
integration, so the potential at r becomes
PROPERTIES OF MATERIALS
 In a broad sense, materials may be
classified in terms of their conductivity s,
in mhos per meter (Ʊ/m) or, more usually
siemens per meter (S/m), as conductors
and nonconductors, or technically as
metals and insulators (or dielectrics).
The conductivity of a material usually
depends on temperature and frequency.
Material with high conductivity (σ>>1)
is referred to as a metal, whereas one with
low conductivity (σ<<1) is referred to as an
insulator. A material whose conductivity
lies somewhere between those of metals
and insulators is called a semiconductor.
CONVECTION AND CONDUCTION
CURRENTS
Current (I):
The current (in amperes) through a
given area is the electric charge passing
through the area per unit time.

That is,

Thus in a current of one ampere, charge is

being transferred at a rate of one coulomb per
second.
current density (J):
If current ∆I flows through a planar surface
∆ S, the current density is

Or
 assuming that the current density is
perpendicular to the surface.

If the current density is not normal to the surface,

Depending on how I is produced, there are

different kinds of current density:
Convection current density,
conduction current density,
and displacement current density.
CONVECTION CURRENT:
Convection current, as distinct from
conduction current, does not involve conductors
and consequently does not satisfy Ohm’s law.
It occurs when current flows through an
insulating medium such as liquid, rarefied gas, or
a vacuum.
A beam of electrons in a vacuum tube, for
example, is a convection current.

The current density at a given point is the

current through a unit normal area at that
point.
Consider a filament of Figure

If there is a flow of charge, of density ρv, at

velocity
u = uyay. The current through the filament is
Hence, in general

The current I is the convection current and

J is the convection current density in amperes
per square meter (A/m2).

CONDUCTION CURRENT:

Conduction current requires a conductor. A

conductor is characterized by a large number of
free electrons that provide conduction current
due to an impressed electric field. When an
electric field E is applied, the force on an
electron with charge - e is
F = -eE
 Since the electron is not in free space, it
will not experience an average acceleration
under the influence of the electric field. Rather, it
suffers constant collisions with the atomic lattice
and drifts from one atom to another. If an
electron with mass m is moving in an electric
field E with an average drift velocity u,
according to Newton’s law, the average
change in momentum of the free electron must
match the applied force.
Thus,

where τ is the average time interval

between collisions. This indicates that the drift
velocity of the electron is directly proportional to
the applied field.
 If there are n electrons per unit volume, the
electronic charge density is given by

Thus the conduction current density is

where σ = ne2τ/m is the conductivity of the

conductor.

The relationship is known as the point form

of Ohm’s law.
CAPACITANCE
 Generally speaking, to have a capacitor
we must have two (or more) conductors carrying
equal but opposite charges. This implies that all
the flux lines leaving one conductor must
necessarily terminate at the surface of the other
conductor. The conductors are sometimes
referred to as the plates of the capacitor. The
plates may be separated by free space or a
dielectric.
Consider the two-conductor capacitor of below
figure.
 The conductors are maintained at a
potential difference V given by

where E is the electric field existing between

the conductors and conductor 1 is assumed
to carry a positive charge. (Note that the E field
is always normal to the conducting
surfaces.) We define the capacitance C of the
capacitor as the ratio of the magnitude of the
charge on one of the plates to the potential
difference between them; that is,

The negative sign before has been

dropped because we are interested in the
The former method involves taking the following
steps:
1. Choose a suitable coordinate system.
2. Let the two conducting plates carry
charges +Q and -Q.
3. Determine E by using Coulomb’s or
Gauss’s law and find V from V= - ʃ [Link] .The
negative sign may be ignored in this case
because we are interested in the absolute value
of V.
4. Finally, obtain C from C = Q/V.

We will now apply this mathematically

attractive procedure to determine the
capacitance of some important two-conductor
configurations.
Parallel-Plate
Capacitor
Consider the parallel-plate capacitor of below
Figure

Suppose that each of the plates has an area S

and they are separated by a distance d. We
assume that plates 1 and 2, respectively, carry
charges +Q and -Q uniformly distributed on them
so that
 If the space between the plates is filled
with a homogeneous dielectric with permittivity
Ԑ and we ignore flux fringing at the edges of the
plates,
D=-ρs ax (or)
The energy stored in a capacitor is given by

To verify this for a parallel-plate capacitor,

as expected.
Coaxial Capacitor
A coaxial capacitor is essentially a coaxial cable
or coaxial cylindrical capacitor. Consider length L
of two coaxial conductors of inner radius a and
outer radius b (b>> a) as shown in Figure.
Let the space between the conductors be
filled with a homogeneous dielectric with
permittivity Ԑ. We assume that conductors 1 and
2, respectively, carry +Q and –Q uniformly
distributed on them.
 By applying Gauss’s law to an arbitrary
Gaussian cylindrical surface of radius r (a< ρ<b),
we obtain
 UNIT-2
MAGNETOSTATICS
BIOT–SAVART’S LAW:
Biot–Savart’s law states that the
differential magnetic field intensity dH
produced at a point P by the differential current
element dl is proportional to the product I dl and
the sine of the angle a between the
element and the line joining P to the element
and is inversely proportional to the square of the
distance R between P and the element.
 We assume a current I flowing in a
differential vector length of the filament d L.
The law of Biot-Savart then states that at any
point P the magnitude of the magnetic field
intensity produced by the differential element is
proportional to the product of the current, the
magnitude of the differential length, and the sine of
the angle lying between the filament and a line
connecting the filament to the point P at which the
field is desired; also, the magnitude of the magnetic
field intensity is inversely proportional to the
square of the distance from the differential element
to the point P.
From the definition of cross product it is easy to notice that
above equation is better put in vector form as

where R = |R| and aR =R/R

 Thus the direction of dH can be determined by
the right-hand rule with the right-hand thumb pointing
in the direction of the current and the right-hand fingers
encircling the wire in the direction of dH.
Alternatively, we can use the right-handed-screw
rule to Determine the direction of dH: with the screw
placed along the wire and pointed in the direction of
current flow, the direction of rotation of the screw is the
direction of dH.
 It is customary to represent the direction of the
magnetic field intensity H (or current I) by a small
circle with a dot or cross sign depending on whether
H (or I) is out of the page, or into it respectively.