Chapter 1

Introduction
 Topics to be covered in Chapter 1:
 Data Communications
- Components
- Data Representation
- Data Flow
 Networks
- Network Criteria
- Physical Structures
 Network Types
- Local Area Network
- Wide Area Network
- Switching
- The Internet
- Accessing the Internet

2
 Data Communication
 Data
 Information presented in whatever form is agreed upon by the parties
creating and using the data
 Binary information units (0s and 1s)

 Data Communication
 Exchange of data between two devices via transmission medium

 Fundamental Characteristics of effective communication

1. Delivery
2. Accuracy
3. Jitter
4. Timeliness

3
Data Communication System
Components

4
 Data Communication System Components
(cont.)
 Message
 Information (data) to be communicated
 Sender
 Device sending data message
 Receiver
 Device receiving message
 Medium
 Physical path by which a message travels
 Protocol
 Set of rules governing data communication
 Agreement between communicating devices

5
 Data Representation
 Text (Unicode, American Standard Code for Information
Interchange (ASCII))
 Numbers
 Images ( Divided into pixel with size in bit patterns, has
color scheme of RGB- red,
green, and blue or YCM- yellow, cyan, and magenta.
 Audio
 Video

6
 Data Flow
Communication between two devices can be in the following
modes:

 Simplex

 Duplex
 Half Duplex
 Full Duplex

7
 Direction of Data Flow
 Simplex
 Unidirectional communication
 Keyboard, monitor

8
 Direction of Data Flow (cont.)
 Half-duplex
 Both transmit and receive, but not at the same time
 Walkie-talkie

9
 Direction of Data Flow (cont.)
 Full-duplex
 Transmit and receive simultaneously
 Telephone network

10
Direction of Data Flow (cont.)

11
 1.2 Networks
 Network
 A set of devices (nodes) connected by communication
links such as desktop, laptop, cellular phone, router,
switch, modem etc.

12
 1.2.1 Network Criteria
1. Performance
 Transit time, Response time
 Throughput, delay,
 Factors including number of users, type of transmission
medium, hardware, software
2. Reliability
 Frequency of failure, recovery time of a network after a
failure, network’s robustness in a catastrophe
3. Security
 Protecting data from unauthorized access

13
1.2.2 Physical Structures

14
Physical Structure (cont.)

15
 Physical Structure (cont.)
 Physical Topology
 The way in which a network is laid out physically

16
 Physical Structure (cont.)
 Physical Topology (cont.)
 Mesh

Every device has a dedicated p-to-p link to every other device

Use of dedicated links guarantee that each connection carries its
own data load between two devices

Robust, meaning one link failure does not halt entire system

Privacy or security

Easy fault identification and fault isolation

Amount of cabling and number of I/O ports required (n(n-1)/2)

17
 Physical Structure (cont.)
 Physical Topology (cont.)
 Star

Dedicated p-to-p link to central controller (hub)

Less expensive than mesh

Easy to install and reconfigure due to only one link and one I/O port

Robustness due to easy fault identification and fault isolation

More cabling than other topologies (tree, ring, bus)

Single failure problem

18
 Physical Structure (cont.)
 Physical Topology (cont.)
 Bus

Multipoint configuration

Ease of installation

Limited number of taps a bus can support and distance

Difficult reconfiguration and isolation

19
 Physical Structure (cont.)
 Physical Topology (cont.)
 Ring

Dedicated p-to-p configuration with two devices on either side

Easy to install and reconfigure

Simplified fault isolation

Unidirectional traffic

A break in the ring can disable entire network

20
 1.3 Network Types:
Categories of Networks (cont.)
 Local Area Network (LAN)
 Privately owned and limited size to a few kilometers
 Allow resources to be shared between PCs or workstations
 Bus, ring or star

21
 Difference between LAN and WAN
There are some differences between a LAN and a WAN.
A LAN is normally limited in size, spanning an office, a
building, or a campus; a WAN has a wider geographical span,
spanning a town, a state, a country, or even the world.

A LAN interconnects hosts; a WAN interconnects connecting

devices such as switches, routers, or modems.

A LAN is normally privately owned by the organization that

uses it; a WAN is normally created and run by communication
companies and leased by an organization that uses it.

22
 Categories of Networks (cont.)
 Wide Area Network (WAN)
 Provide long-distance transmission of data over large
geographical areas (country or continent)
 Utilize public, leased, or private communication equipment
 Enterprise Network

WAN that is wholly owned and used by a single company

23
WANs: a switched WAN and a point-to-point
WAN

24
A heterogeneous network made of four WANs
and two LANs

25
 Chapter 2

Network Models
Topics to be covered in Chapter 2:

2.1 Protocol Layering

2.2 TCP/IP Protocol Suite
2.3 The OSI Model

27
 2-1 PROTOCOL LAYERING

A word we hear all the time when we

talk about the Internet is Protocol. A
protocol defines the rules that both
the sender and receiver and all
intermediate devices need to follow
to be able to communicate
effectively. When communication is
simple, we may need only one simple
protocol; when the communication is
complex, we need a protocol at each2.28
 2.1.1 Scenarios
Let us develop two simple scenarios to better
understand the need for protocol layering.

In the first scenario, communication is so simple

that it can occur in only one layer.

In the second, the communication between Maria

and Ann takes place in three layers.

2.29
Figure 2.1: A single-layer protocol

2.30
Figure 2.2: A three-layer protocol

Postal carrier facility

2.31
 2.1.2 Principles of Protocol Layering

The first principle: dictates that if we want bidirectional

communication, we need to make each layer so that it is able to
perform two opposite tasks, one in each direction.

Ex: The third layer task is to listen (in one direction) and
talk (in the other direction). The second layer needs to be
able to encrypt and decrypt. The first layer needs to send
and receive mail.

The second principle: we need to follow in protocol layering is that

the two objects under each layer at both sites should be identical.

EX: For example, the object under layer 3 at both sites

should be a plaintext letter. The object under layer 2 at
2.32
both sites should be a ciphertext letter. The object under
 2.1.3 Logical Connections

To understand networks, we can think that there is Logical connection

between peer layers. Maria and Ann can think that there is a logical
(imaginary) connection at each layer through which they can send the object created
from that layer.
2.33
 2-2 TCP/IP PROTOCOL SUITE

A protocol defines the rules that both the

sender and receiver and all intermediate
devices need to follow to be able to
communicate effectively.

When communication is simple: we may

need only one simple protocol.

when the communication is complex: we

need a protocol at each layer, or protocol
layering.
2.34
 2-2 TCP/IP PROTOCOL SUITE

TCP/IP is a protocol suite (a set of protocols

organized in different layers) used in the
Internet today.

It is a hierarchical protocol: means that each

upper level protocol is supported by the
services provided by one or more lower level
protocols.

2.35
Figure 2.4: Layers in the TCP/IP protocol suite

The original TCP/IP protocol Today, TCP/IP is

suite was defined as four thought of as a five-
software layers built upon layer model.
the hardware.
2.36
 2.2.1 Layered Architecture
To show how the layers in the TCP/IP protocol suite
are involved in communication between two hosts,
we assume that we want to use the suite in a small
internet made up of three LANs (links), each with a
link-layer switch. We also assume that the links are
connected by one router, as shown in Figure 2.5.

2.37
 2.2.1 Layered Architecture

To show how the layers in the TCP/IP protocol works, we assume that we have following internet

The router has three layers .

The link-layer switch has two

layers

2.38
 2.2.2 Layers in the TCP/IP Protocol Suite
To understand the duty of each layer, we need to think about the logical
connections between layers.

Logical
connections

The duty of the application, The duty of the data-link

transport, and network layers and physical layers is hop-
is end-to-end. to-hop, hop is a host or
Their domain of duty is the router. 2.39
 Figure 2.7: Identical objects in the TCP/IP protocol
suite

Identical objects (messages)

Identical objects (segment or user datagram)

Identical objects (datagram) Identical objects (datagram)

Identical objects (frame) Identical objects (frame)

Identical objects (bits) Identical objects (bits)

the second principle: identical objects below each layer related to each
device.
2.40
 2.2.3 Description of Each Layer

After understanding the concept of logical

communication, we are ready to briefly discuss the
duty of each layer.

Our discussion in this chapter will be very brief, but

we come back to the duty of each layer in next five
parts of the book.

2.41
 2.2.4 Encapsulation and Decapsulation

One of the important concepts in protocol layering

in the Internet is encapsulation/ decapsulation.
Figure 2.8 shows this concept for the small internet
in Figure 2.5.

2.42
 Figure 2.8: Encapsulation / Decapsulation

transport-layer
packet
datagra
m
frame

2.43
 2.2.5 Addressing

It is worth mentioning another concept related to protocol

layering in the Internet, addressing. As we discussed before,
we have logical communication between pairs of layers in
this model.
Any communication that involves two parties needs two
addresses: source address and destination address.
Although it looks as if we need five pairs of addresses, one
pair per layer, we normally have only four because the
physical layer does not need addresses; the unit of data
exchange at the physical layeٍr is a bit, which definitely
cannot have an address.

2.44
Figure 2.9: Addressing in the TCP/IP protocol suite

2.45
 2.2.6 Multiplexing and Demultiplexing

Since the TCP/IP protocol suite uses several

protocols at some layers, we can say that we have
multiplexing at the source and demultiplexing at the
destination.
Multiplexing in this case means that a protocol at a
layer can encapsulate a packet from several next-
higher layer protocols (one at a time).
Demultiplexing means that a protocol can
decapsulate and deliver a packet to several next-
higher layer protocols (one at a time)

2.46
 Figure 2.10: Multiplexing and demultiplexing

To be able to multiplex and demultiplex, a protocol needs

to have a field in its header to identify to which protocol
the encapsulated packets belong.

Ex: At the transport layer, either UDP or TCP can accept

a message from several application-layer
protocols.

2.47
 2-3 OSI MODEL

A word we hear all the time when we

talk about the Internet is protocol. A
protocol defines the rules that both
the sender and receiver and all
intermediate devices need to follow
to be able to communicate
effectively. When communication is
simple, we may need only one simple
protocol; when the communication is
complex, we need a protocol at each2.48
Figure 2.11: The OSI model

2.49
 2.3.1 OSI versus TCP/IP

When we compare the two models, we find that two

layers, session and presentation, are missing from
the TCP/IP protocol suite. These two layers were not
added to the TCP/IP protocol suite after the
publication of the OSI model. The application layer
in the suite is usually considered to be the
combination of three layers in the OSI model, as
shown in Figure 2.12.

2.50
Figure 2.12: TCP/IP and OSI model

2.51
 2.3.2 Lack of OSI Model’s Success

The OSI model appeared after the TCP/IP protocol suite. Most experts
were at first excited and thought that the TCP/IP protocol would be
fully replaced by the OSI model. This did not happen for several
reasons, but we describe only three, which are agreed upon by all
experts in the field:
1. OSI was completed when TCP/IP was fully in place.
changing it would cost a lot.

2. some layers in the OSI model were never fully defined. For
example, although the services provided by the presentation
and the session layers were listed in the document, actual
protocols for these two layers were not fully defined, nor
were they fully described, and the corresponding software
was not fully developed.

3. when OSI was implemented by an organization in a

2.52
different application, it did not show a high enough level of
 Chapter 7

Transmission Media
 Topics to be covered in Chapter 7

7.1 INTRODUCTION

7.2 GUIDED MEDIA

7.3 UNGUIDED MEDIA

 7-1 INTRODUCTION

Transmission media are actually

located below the physical layer
and are directly controlled by the
physical layer. We could say that
transmission media belong to
layer zero.

Figure 7.1 shows the position of

transmission media in relation to
the physical layer. 7.55
Figure 7.1: Transmission media and physical layer

7.56
Figure 7.2: Classes of transmission media

7.57
 7-2 GUIDED MEDIA

Guided media, which are those

that provide a channel from one
device to another, include twisted-
pair cable, coaxial cable, and fiber-
optic cable.

A signal traveling along any of

these media is directed and
contained by the physical limits of
the medium. 7.58
 7.2.1 Twisted-Pair Cable
A twisted pair consists of two conductors (normally
copper), each with its own plastic insulation, twisted
together, as shown in Figure 7.3.

One of the wires is used to carry signals to the

receiver, and the other is used only as a ground
reference. The receiver uses the difference between
the two.

In addition to the signal sent by the sender on one of

the wires, interference (noise) and crosstalk may
affect both wires and create unwanted signals.
7.59
Figure 7.3: Twisted-pair cable

7.60
Figure 7.4: UTP and STP cables

7.61
 Table 7.1: Categories of unshielded twisted-pair
cables

7.62
Figure 7.6: UTP Performance

7.64
 7.2.2 Coaxial Cable
Coaxial cable (or coax) carries signals of higher frequency
ranges than those in twisted pair cable, in part because the
two media are constructed quite differently.

Instead of having two wires, coax has a central core

conductor of solid or stranded wire (usually copper)
enclosed in an insulating sheath, which is, in turn,
encased in an outer conductor of metal foil, braid, or a
combination of the two.

The outer metallic wrapping serves both as a shield

against noise and as the second conductor, which
completes the circuit. 7.65
Figure 7.7: Coaxial cable

7.66
 Table 7.2: Categories of coaxial cables

Coax are categorized by their Radio Government (RG)

ratings. Each RG number denotes a unique set of
physical specifications such as wire gauge of the inner
conductor, the thickness and type of the inner insulator,
and the type of the outer casing.

7.67
Figure 7.8: BNC connectors [Bayonet Neill-
Concelman]

7.68
Figure 7.9: Coaxial cable performance

7.69
 7.2.3 Fiber-Optic Cable
A fiber-optic cable is made of glass or plastic and
transmits signals in the form of light. To understand
optical fiber, we first need to explore several aspects
of the nature of light.

Light travels in a straight line as long as it is moving

through a single uniform substance. If a ray of light
traveling through one substance suddenly enters
another substance (of a different density), the ray
changes direction. Figure 7.10 shows how a ray of
light changes direction when going from a more
dense to a less dense substance.
7.70
Figure 7.10: Bending of light ray

7.71
Figure 7.11: Optical fiber

7.72
Figure 7.12: Propagation modes

7.73
Figure 7.13: Modes

7.74
 Table 7.3: Fiber types

7.75
Figure 7.14: Fiber connection

7.76
Figure 7.15: Fiber-optic cable connector

7.77
Figure 7.16: Optical fiber performance

7.78
 7-3 UNGUIDED MEDIA

 Unguided medium transport

electromagnetic waves without
using a physical conductor. This
type of communication is often
referred to as wireless
communication.

 Signals are normally broadcast

through free space and thus are
available to anyone who has a 7.79
Figure 7.17: Electromagnetic spectrum for
wireless communication

7.80
Unguided signals can travel from source to destination in following
ways:

Figure 7.18: Propagation methods

7.81
 Table 7.4: Bands

7.82
 7.3.1 Radio Waves and Microwaves

Although there is no clear-cut demarcation between

radio waves and microwaves, electromagnetic waves
ranging in frequencies between 3 kHz and 1 GHz
are normally called radio waves;

waves ranging in frequencies between 1 and 300

GHz are called microwaves. However, the behavior
of the waves, rather than the frequencies, is a better
criterion for classification.

7.83
Figure 7.19: Omnidirectional antenna

7.84
 7.3.3 Infrared
Infrared waves, with frequencies from 300 GHz to 400 THz
(wavelengths from 1 mm to 770 nm), can be used for short-
range communication.

Infrared waves, having high frequencies, cannot penetrate

walls. This advantageous characteristic prevents
interference between one system and another;

a short-range communication system in one room cannot

be affected by another system in the next room. When we
use our infrared remote control, we do not interfere with
the use of the remote by our neighbors.
7.85
 Chapter 8: SLT Part

8.3 PACKET-SWITCHING
 8-1 INTRODUCTION

A network is a set of connected

devices. Whenever we have
multiple devices, we have the
problem of how to connect them
to make one-to-one
communication possible. The
solution is switching. A switched
network consists of a series of
interlinked nodes, called switches.
8.87
Figure 8.1: Switched network

8.88
 8.8.1 Three Methods of Switching

Traditionally, three methods of switching have been

discussed: circuit switching, packet switching, and
message switching. The first two are commonly used
today. The third has been phased out in general
communications but still has applications. Packet
switching can further be divided into two
subcategories, virtual-circuit approach and
datagram approach, as shown in Figure 8.2.

8.89
 8.8.2 Switching and TCP/IP Layers

Switching can happen at several layers of the

TCP/IP protocol suite: at the physical layer, at the
data-link layer, and at the network layer.

8.90
Figure 8.2: Taxonomy of switched networks

8.91
 8-3 PACKET SWITCHING

Packet switched networks are classified as

a) Datagram Networks
b) Virtual circuit Networks

8.92
 8.3.1 Datagram Networks

 In a datagram network, each packet is treated

independently of all others. Known as a
connectionless network.

 A datagram network operates at the Network layer.

 Even if a packet is part of a multipacket

transmission, the network treats packets as though
they existed alone. Packets in this approach are
referred to as datagrams.

8.93
 Figure 8.7: A Datagram network with four 3-level switches
(routers)

3 1
4 3 2 1
4
1

2 3
1
4
2 2 3 4 1

8.94
 8.3.1 Datagram Networks
The packets have a destination address in the header.

The destination address for each datagram is used at a

router to forward the message towards its final
destination.

The packet header contains a sequence number in the

header so it can be ordered at the destination.

A circuit switched network does not require a header

or destination address for the data transfer stage, the
link is dedicated!
8.95
 Figure 8.8: Routing table in a datagram network

8.96
 Figure 8.9: Delays in a datagram network (compare to next
slide)

8.97
 Figure 8.6: Compare the datagram network to the circuit-
switched network

Data transfer

8.98
 8.3.2 Virtual-Circuit Networks
A virtual-circuit network is a cross between a circuit-
switched network and a datagram network.

The virtual-circuit shares characteristics of both.

The virtual-circuit network operates at the data-link

layer (or network layer).

The packets for a virtual circuit network are known as

frames.

8.99
 Figure 8.10: Virtual-circuit network

8.100
 8.3.2 Virtual-Circuit Networks

A virtual-circuit network uses a series of special

temporary addresses known as virtual circuit
identifiers (VCI).

The VCI at each switch, is used to advance the frame

towards its final destination.

8.101
 Figure 8.11: Virtual-circuit identifier (compare the VCI to a
Datagram destination address)

8.102
 8.3.2 Virtual-Circuit Networks

The switch has a table with 4 columns:

a) Inputs half
•Input Port Number

•Input VCI

b) Outputs half
•Output Port Number

•Output VCI

8.103
 Figure 8.12: Switch and table for a virtual-circuit network

8.104
 Figure 8.13: Source-to-destination data transfer in a circuit-switch
network

8.105
 Virtual Circuit Networks

The VCN behaves like a circuit switched net because

there is a setup phase to establish the VCI entries in
the switch table.

8.106
 Virtual Circuit Networks
The VCN behaves like a circuit switched net because
there is a setup phase to establish the VCI entries in
the switch table.

There is also a data transfer phase and teardown

phase.

8.107
 Figure 8.14: Setup request in a virtual-circuit network
All nodes have a VCI

8.108
 Figure 8.15: Setup acknowledgment in a virtual-circuit
network

8.109
 Figure 8.16: Delay in a virtual-circuit network

8.110
111