Psychology as a
Profession:
Nature, employability, challenges
Developmental Psychology
▪ DP the scientific study of how and why humans grow, change, and adapt
across the course of their lives.
▪ Originally concerned with infants and children, the field has expanded to
include adolescence, adult development, aging, and the entire lifespan.
▪ The field explores the physical, cognitive, emotional, and social changes that
happen as people age.
▪ Developmental psychologists try to find out principles of normative
development with specific milestones help professionals to spot potential
problems and provide early intervention for better outcomes.
▪ Developmental psychologists can work with people of all ages to address
roadblocks and support growth.
Developmental psychology-
principles
▪ The principles of developmental psychology outlined by Paul Baltes (1987) suggest that
development is;
(1) lifelong, : the potential for development extends across the entire life span
(2) multidimensional, : Multidimensionality refers to the fact that development cannot be
described by a single criterion such as increases or decreases in a behaviour.- complex interplay
of biological, cognitive, and socioemotional changes.
(3) multidirectional, : The principle of multidirectionality maintains that there is no single, normal
path that development must or should take. In other words, healthy developmental outcomes are
achieved in a wide variety of ways. Ex: vocabulary, may improve with age, others, like
processing speed, may decline.
Principles…..
(4) involves gains and losses, : According to Baltes, any developmental process
involves aspects of growth and decline. For example, formal schooling increases a
child's knowledge base and develops their cognitive abilities but also restricts their
creativity as they learn to follow rules defined by others. These two aspects of
growth and decline need not occur in equal strength, and, moreover, the balance
between gains and losses can change with time.
(5) plasticity (malleable and adaptive), : Plasticity refers to the within-person
variability which is possible for a particular behaviour or development. For
example, infants who have a hemisphere of the brain removed shortly after birth
(as a treatment for epilepsy) can recover the functions associated with that
hemisphere as the brain reorganizes itself and the remaining hemisphere takes
over those functions.
(6) Multidisciplinary : That is, the sources of age-related changes do not lie within
the province of any one discipline. For example, psychological methodologies may
not be appropriate for understanding factors that are sociological in nature. Rather,
an understanding of human development will be achieved only by research
conducted from the perspective of disciplines such as sociology, linguistics,
DP: What do they study?
They study and develop theories on (not an exhaustive list) :
Cognitive development during childhood and throughout life -eg intelligence/ dementia
Developmental challenges eg- learning disabilities
Emotional development throughout life - eg lack of emotional control
Language & Motor skill development - may nor develop or may decline due to brain disorders
Moral reasoning – lack of guilt- anti social behaviours
Personality development – healthy & unhealthy personality development- narcissism,
Self-awareness and self-concept – self confidence and self esteem
Social and cultural influences on development – social skills and resisting bad social influences
▪ How the above grow during early years and decline during older age- what are the expected
(normative) course of development in each area?
Challenges in DP
▪ The field focus major challenges on the nature of human development;
Nature or nurture: Does development depend just on genetics and biology?
Individual differences in development: Do all people develop the same way? If
not is it abnormal or just individual difference?
Qualitative differences in development: Some may show greater development
in one area and poor in another – intelligence and social skills.
The role of culture and social context in development: Do people from
different culture, gender, race or caste develop different skills & abilities?
The role of developing individual – passive or active? Are you just waiting for
change to occur?
DP: Methods of study
1. Longitudinal Research: Examines how the same
individuals change over time. Ex: Tracking the cognitive
skills of the same group of people every few years
throughout their lives. It Provides detailed information about
individual developmental trajectories. But at the same time, it
is time-consuming, expensive, and susceptible to participant
dropout.
• Cross-Sectional Research: Compares different groups of people at
different ages at the same point in time. Ex:Comparing how children
and adults respond to a specific social issue by surveying both groups
at the same time. It is relatively quick and inexpensive to conduct. But
Cannot track individual development over time, vulnerable to cohort
effects (differences between groups due to their unique experiences).
3. Experimental Research : Manipulates variables to determine cause-and-effect relationships in
development. Ex:The Little Albert experiment (demonstrating how fear could be conditioned) and
the Bobo doll experiment (showing how children learn aggression through observation). It allows
for controlled examination of specific developmental processes. But Ethical concerns can limit the
types of experiments that can be conducted with children.
4. Comparative Studies: Examines how different cultures or groups approach the same
developmental issue. Ex:Comparing how people from Western and Eastern cultures experience
death anxiety through surveys and interviews. It Provides insights into the influence of culture on
development. Can be challenging to control for cultural differences that might influence the results.
DP: Scope
▪ By creating better understanding how and why people change and grow, developmental
psychologists help people live up to their full potential.
▪ help people Anticipate, diagnose early interventions by understanding the course of
normal human development and recognizing potential problems early on can prevent
difficulties. Study atypical development. eg: Children with certain genetic or
developmental challenges are likely to develop certain disorders. CD/ ODD leading to anti
social personality. Or gifted children may require extra training to maximise their abilities.
▪ Encourage people to seek professional help in case of a developmental delay or additional
support for advanced development. Eg; take counseling in case of attachment disorder.
▪ Education and training for parents, teachers, doctors and other professionals.
DP: Scope
▪ Clinical psychology and childhood disorder management
▪ Forming government policies and guidelines for care of children,
adolescent, geriatric and special population. Eg: changes in education
style based on Piaget’s theory. New laws for punishment in schools.
▪ Promote healthy family, parental couple and social interactions. Cross-
cultural understanding.
▪ Designing intervention programs for children adolescents, geriatric and
special population. Promote public mental health awareness.
▪ Aging and gerontology research studies may help people to track
cognitive decline and arrest acceleration of dementia.
DP: Major theories
▪ Freud: psycho sexual stages development of personality.
▪ Erickson: Psychosocial stages of development
▪ Piaget: stages of cognitive development
▪ Bowlby: attachment theory – emotional development
▪ Vygotsky- stages of sociocultural development
▪ Kohlberg: stage theory of moral development
Psycho-Sexual Stages development
of Personality- SIGMUND FREUD-
1905
Psycho-Sexual Stages development
of Personality- SIGMUND FREUD
• Sigmund Freud's psychosexual theory suggests that an
individual's personality and sexuality evolve through five
different stages of life. During each stage, different
pleasure-seeking or sexual energies become focused on
specific erogenous regions of the body.
• Freud believed these erogenous zones then led to either
sources of pleasure or frustration, which would ultimately
make an impact on the development of the personality of an
individual.
• The five stages Freud identified in his psychosexual theory
are:
[Link] Oral Stage (birth to 1 year old): In this stage, the erogenous zone
is the mouth because most of an infant's initial interactions occur through
that zone.
[Link] Anal Stage (1–3 years old): This stage emphasizes bladder and
bowel control and is the time when children are weaned out of diapers
and become toilet trained.
[Link] Phallic Stage (3–6 years old): During this stage, the genitals are the
erogenous zone, and the theory suggests that this is when boys and girls
become aware of their differences. At this time, a young boy may see his
father as a rival for his mother's attention (this is otherwise known as an
Oedipus complex), or a young girl may begin to view her mother as a
rival for her father's attention (or have an Electra complex).
4. The Latent Stage (6 years old to puberty): During this stage, sexual
feelings or desires stay dormant or repressed as the ego and superego
develop. Children also begin socializing more and develop intellectual
pursuits through school and other activities.
5. The Genital Stage (puberty to death): In this final stage, a person's
libido is once again activated, and at its outset, individuals begin to
develop an interest in the opposite sex.
Eric Erickson’s theory of
psychosocial development - 1950
Eric Erickson: Psychosocial stages of development
• Infancy – Mistrust vs Basic trust; 0-1
• Toddler – Doubt and shame vs Autonomy;
• Pre school-age – Guilt vs Initiative;
• School-age – Inferiority vs Industry;
• Adolescence – Identity confusion vs Identity;
• Young adulthood – Isolation vs Intimacy;
• Middle age – Stagnation vs Generativity;
• Older adulthood – Despair vs Integrity.
Jean Piaget's theory of cognitive
development- 1932
Jean Piaget's theory of cognitive
development
1. Sensorimotor Stage (0-2 years): Infants learn through their senses and actions. Key
achievements include object permanence (understanding that objects continue to exist even when
out of sight) and the development of basic schemas.
2. Preoperational Stage (2-7 years): Children begin to use symbols and language, but their
thinking is still largely intuitive and egocentric. They struggle with logical thought and
conservation (understanding that the amount of something remains the same even if its
appearance changes.
3. Concrete Operational Stage (7-11 years): Children develop logical thinking about concrete
events and objects. They can understand conservation and perform mental operations, but their
thinking is still limited to the concrete world.
4. Formal Operational Stage (12+ years): Adolescents develop abstract and hypothetical
thinking. They can reason about possibilities, think systematically, and engage in scientific
reasoning.
John Bowlby: attachment theory – emotional
development- 1970s
Attachment theory, developed by John Bowlby, explains how early
childhood relationships with caregivers shape our social and emotional
development, influencing relationships throughout life.
Attachment styles :
•Secure: Children feel safe and loved, trusting their caregivers. They are
comfortable with intimacy and independence in relationships.
•Anxious-preoccupied: Children crave intimacy and fear abandonment.
They may be overly dependent and seek constant reassurance in
relationships.
•Dismissive-avoidant: Children suppress their needs and avoid closeness.
They may be emotionally distant and prioritize independence over
intimacy.
•Fearful-avoidant: Children have a mixed desire for closeness but fear
rejection. They may have unpredictable and volatile relationships
Bowlby suggested that attachment develops in a series of four stages from infancy
through early childhood:
[Link]-attachment (birth to 6 weeks): The infant is indiscriminate in its attachment
behaviors, showing no preference for any specific caregiver. The baby cries, coos, and
smiles to get the attention of any adult.
[Link]-in-the-making (6 weeks to 6-8 months): Infants begin to show
preferences for primary caregivers, like parents, but still accept care from others. They
develop a sense of trust that the caregiver will respond to their needs.
[Link]-cut attachment (6-8 months to 18-24 months): The infant becomes more
attached to the primary caregiver and may show separation anxiety when the caregiver
leaves.
[Link] of a reciprocal relationship (18-24 months and beyond): Children
grow more independent and understand that the caregiver will return, which results in
decreasing levels of anxiety during separations.
Lev Vygotsky's sociocultural theory-
1960s
•Vygotsky's social development theory asserts that a child's cognitive development and
learning ability can be guided and mediated by their social interactions. His theory (also
called Vygotsky's Sociocultural theory) states that learning is a crucially social process
as opposed to an independent journey of discovery.
•Key concepts:
•The Zone of Proximal Development (ZPD): This is the foundational concept. It represents the gap
between a learner's current abilities and what they can potentially achieve with guidance. It's not a stage
itself, but rather a dynamic space where learning occurs. The ZPD is constantly shifting as the learner
develops new skills and knowledge.
•Scaffolding: This is the support provided by a more knowledgeable other (MKO) to help the learner
bridge the ZPD. It's a temporary framework that is adjusted and removed as the learner gains mastery.
Scaffolding isn't a stage, but a crucial mechanism for learning within the ZPD. As a learner progresses,
the type and amount of scaffolding they need changes.
Internalization: This is the process through which learners absorb knowledge
and skills from their social interactions and gradually make them their own. It's
the movement from interpersonal learning (between people) to intrapersonal
learning (within the individual). This internalization is an ongoing process, not
a specific stage. Initially, a learner might rely heavily on external support, but
eventually, they internalize these tools and can use them independently.
Language and Thought: Vygotsky stressed the crucial role of language in
cognitive development. He saw language as a tool for thought, not just
communication. Initially, thought is dependent on language and social
interaction, but through internalization, language becomes a tool for thinking
itself. Private speech (talking to oneself) is an example of this internalization,
where children use language to organize their thoughts and actions. This
development of language as a tool for thought is a continuous process linked
to the other concepts.
Lawrence Kohlberg’s stages of
moral development -1958
Lawrence Kohlberg's theory of moral development outlines how individuals
develop their moral reasoning abilities. He proposed three levels of moral
development, each with two stages, progressing from simple, self-centered
perspectives to more complex, principled ones:
Level 1: Preconventional Morality (Ages: typically up to 9 years)
• Stage 1: Obedience and Punishment Orientation: Focus is on direct
consequences. Right and wrong are determined by avoiding punishment and
obeying authority. "Will I get in trouble?"
• Stage 2: Self-Interest Orientation (Instrumental Relativist Orientation):
Actions are judged by their benefit to oneself. There's a growing awareness of
others' perspectives, but it's still based on satisfying personal needs. "What's in
it for me?"
Level 2: Conventional Morality ;Ages: typically, adolescence and
adulthoo
• Stage 3: Good Boy/Good Girl Orientation (Interpersonal
Concordance): Emphasis is on social approval. Individuals strive to
maintain relationships and gain acceptance by being "good." "What
will others think of me?"
• Stage 4: Law and Order Orientation (Maintaining the Social
Order): Focus shifts to upholding societal rules and laws. Moral
decisions are based on maintaining order and fulfilling duties. "What
if everyone did that?"
Level 3: Postconventional Morality (Ages: adulthood, reached by only
some)
• Stage 5: Social Contract Orientation: Individuals recognize that laws are
created to serve society, but they can be changed if they don't promote
the common good. Emphasis is on justice, human rights, and democratic
processes. "What is best for society as a whole?"
• Stage 6: Universal Ethical Principle Orientation: Moral decisions are
based on internalized, abstract principles of justice, human dignity, and
universal human rights, regardless of legal consequences. This stage is
often considered theoretical, as few people consistently reach it. "What
does my conscience tell me?"