Rationale of Control Valve Engineering

A quality product conforms to a set of specifications. Any

deviation from the established specification means lost profit due to
excessive material use, reprocessing costs, or wasted product.
The non-uniformity inherent in raw materials and processes of
production is a common cause of variation of the process variable both
above and below the set point. A process that is in control, with only the
common causes of variation present, typically follows a bell-shaped
normal distribution
The ability of control valves to reduce process variability depends upon
many factors. Research within the industry has found the particular
design features of the final control element, including the valve,
actuator, and positioner, are very important in achieving good process
control under dynamic conditions. Valve components not designed as a
complete assembly typically do not yield the best dynamic performance.
Some of the most important design considerations include:
* Dead band.
* Actuator/positioner design.
* Valve response time.
* Valve type and sizing.
Dead band
Dead band is a major contributor to excess process variability, and control
valve assemblies can be a primary source of dead band in an instrumentation loop due
to a variety of causes such as friction, backlash, shaft wind-up, relay or spool valve
dead zone, etc.
Dead band is a general phenomenon where a range or band of controller
output (CO) values fails to produce a change in the measured process variable (PV)
when the input signal reverses direction.
Actuator and positioner design

The most important characteristic of a good positioner for process

variability reduction is that it be a high gain device.

Static gain is related to the sensitivity of the device to the

detection of small (0,125% or less) changes of the input signal. Unless
the device is sensitive to these small signal changes, it cannot respond
to minor upsets in the process variable. This high static gain of the
positioner is obtained through a preamplifier, similar in function to the
preamplifier contained in high fidelity sound systems.
Once a change in the process variable has been detected by the high
static gain positioner preamplifier, the positioner must then be capable
of making the valve closure member move rapidly to provide a timely
corrective action to the process variable. This requires much power to
make the actuator and valve assembly move quickly to a new position.
The ability to do this comes from the high dynamic gain of the
positioner. Although the positioner preamplifier can have high static
gain, it typically has little ability to supply the power needed. Thus, the
preamplifier function must be supplemented by a high dynamic gain
power-amplifier that supplies the required airflow as rapidly as needed.
This power amplifier function is typically provided by a relay or a spool
valve.
Valve response time
For optimum control of many processes, it is important that the
valve reach a specific position quickly. A quick response to small signal
changes (1% or less) is one of the most important factors in providing
optimum process control. In automatic, regulatory control, the bulk of
the signal changes received from the controller are for small changes in
position. If a control valve assembly can quickly respond to these small
changes, process variability will be improved.

Generally dead time should be no more than one-third of the overall

valve response time
Control Valve Flow Characteristic
The flow characteristic of a control valve can be described as the
relationship between the flow rate through the valve and valve travel as
the valve travel is varied from 0 to 100%. Flow characteristic can be
stated as “inherent” flow characteristic or “installed” flow characteristic.
Inherent Flow Characteristic
The inherent flow characteristics are determined by the valve
orifice and the plug geometry. It refers to the flow characteristic when
there is a constant pressure drop across the control valve (The ΔP is
normally 6.9 kPa or 1 psi). Typically there are three types of inherent
flow characteristic, namely, linear, quick opening and equal percentage.
Linear Flow Characteristic
Linear flow characteristic shows that the flow rate is directly
proportional to the valve travel. For instance, at 50% of rated travel,
flow rate is 50% of maximum flow; at 80% of rated travel, the flow rate
is 80% of maximum flow and so on. The sensitivity of a
control valve with linear flow characteristic is always constant.
 This type of valve is used for proportional control of steam or chilled water, or in

applications that do not have wide load variations. Typically in steam or chilled water

applications, changes in flow through the load (e.g., heat exchanger, coil) cause proportional

changes in heat output.

Equal Percentage Flow Characteristic
In equal percentage flow characteristic, equal increments of
valve travel produce equal percentage changes in the existing flow. The
change in flow rate is always proportional to the flow rate just before
the change in valve plug, disc, or ball position is made. The change in
flow rate observed with respect to travel will be relatively small when
the valve plug is near its seat and relatively high when the valve plug is
nearly wide open. (Increasing sensitivity)
 Graph B shows the nonlinear relationship between flow and stem

travel for the equal percentage control valve. To reduce the flow 50 percent,

the stem must close 10 percent. If the stem closes 50 percent, the flow

reduces 90 percent
 An equal percentage valve is used for proportional control in hot water applications

and is useful in control applications where wide load variations can occur. Typically in hot water

applications, large reductions in flow through the load (e.g., coil) cause small reductions in heat

output. The equal percentage valve compensates for the characteristics of a hot water

application to provide a control that is close to linear.

Quick Opening Flow Characteristic
A valve with quick opening flow characteristic provides a
maximum change in flow rate at low travels and small changes when the
valve plug is near maximum. (Decreasing sensitivity) The curve is
basically linear through the first 40 percent of valve plug travel, and then
flattens out noticeably to indicate little increase in flow rate as travel
approaches the wide open position. Control valves with quick opening
flow characteristics are often used for on/off applications where
significant flow rate must be established quickly as the valve begins to
open. Consequently they are often used in relief valve applications.
 Graph A shows the nonlinear relationship between heat output and
flow for the hot water coil. A 50 percent reduction in flow causes a 10 percent
reduction in heat output. To reduce the heat output by 50 percent, the flow
must decrease 90 percent.
Installed Flow Characteristic
Installed flow characteristic refers to the flow characteristic of
the control valve when the valve is installed and subjected to variable
pressure drop, flow and other changes of the system. The effect of
resistances resulting from pipelines, orifices, or other equipment in
series with the control valve and the variation of available head with
flow rate affect the flow versus stem position relationship.
 Types of Valves

Gate Valves
Best Suited Control: Quick Opening
Recommended Uses:
1. Fully open/closed, non-throttling
2. Infrequent operation
3. Minimal fluid trapping in line
Applications: Oil, gas, air, slurries, heavy liquids, steam, noncondensing
gases, and corrosive liquids
Advantages: Disadvantages:
1. High capacity 1. Poor control
2. Tight shutoff 2. Cavitate at low pressure drops
3. Low cost 3. Cannot be used for throttling
4. Little resistance to flow
Globe Valves
Best Suited Control: Linear and Equal percentage
Recommended Uses:
1. Throttling service/flow regulation
2. Frequent operation
Applications: Liquids, vapors, gases, corrosive substances, slurries
Advantages: Disadvantages:
1. Efficient throttling 1. High pressure drop
2. Accurate flow control 2. More expensive than other
valves
3. Available in multiple ports Ball
Ball Valves
Best Suited Control: Quick opening, linear
Recommended Uses:
1. Fully open/closed, limited-throttling
2. Higher temperature fluids
Applications: Most liquids, high temperatures, slurries
Advantages: Disadvantages:
1. Low cost 1. Poor throttling characteristics
2. High capacity 2. Prone to cavitation
3. Low leakage and maint.
4. Tight sealing with low torque
Butterfly Valves
Best Suited Control: Linear, Equal percentage
Recommended Uses:
1. Fully open/closed or throttling services
2. Frequent operation
3. Minimal fluid trapping in line
Applications: Liquids, gases, slurries, liquids with suspended solids
Advantages: Disadvantages:
1. Low cost and maintenance 1. High torque required for control
2. High capacity 2. Prone to cavitation at lower
flows
3. Good flow control
4. Low pressure drop
Cavitation and Flashing

As liquid flow passes through the restriction, there is a necking

down, or contraction, of the flow stream. The minimum cross−sectional
area of the flow stream occurs just downstream of the actual physical
restriction at a point called the vena contracta
 Regardless of the recovery characteristics of the valve, the
pressure differential of interest pertaining to flashing and cavitation is
the differential between the valve inlet and the vena contracta. If
pressure at the vena contracta should drop below the vapor pressure of
the fluid (due to increased fluid velocity at this point) bubbles will form
in the flow stream. Formation of bubbles will increase greatly as vena
contracta pressure drops further below the vapor pressure of the liquid.
At this stage, there is no difference between flashing and cavitation, but
the potential for structural damage to the valve definitely exists.
 If pressure at the valve outlet remains below the vapor pressure
of the liquid, the bubbles will remain in the downstream system and the
process is said to have flashed. Flashing can produce serious erosion
damage to the valve trim parts and is characterized by a smooth,
polished appearance of the eroded surface, as shown in the figure:
 On the other hand, if downstream pressure recovery is sufficient
to raise the outlet pressure above the vapor pressure of the liquid, the
bubbles will collapse, or implode, producing cavitation. Collapsing of the
vapor bubbles releases energy and produces a noise similar to what one
would expect if gravel were flowing through the valve. If the bubbles
collapse in close proximity to solid surfaces in the valve, the energy
released will gradually tear away the material leaving a rough, cinderlike
surface as shown in the figure:
Using "Steam Table" with saturated steam properties as shown we can
conclude that:
•for a water temperature of 17.51 oC and absolute inlet pressure of 1 bar
- the minimum outlet pressure is 0.02 bar to avoid flashing
•for a water temperature of 81.35 oC and absolute inlet pressure of 1 bar
- the minimum outlet pressure is 0.5 bar to avoid flashing
•For a water temperature of 99.63 oC and absolute inlet pressure of 1
bar - the minimum outlet pressure is 1 bar to avoid flashing
Allowable Differential Pressure
The point at which cavitation becomes damaging can be
expressed by the following:
∆Pallowable = Km * (P1-Pv)
Km = Valve Recovery Coefficient
P1 = Absolute Inlet Pressure (psia)
∆Pallowable = Maximum Allowable Pressure Drop (psi)
Pv = Absolute Vapor Pressure (psia)
 The Valve Recovery Coefficient differs among various types and
sizes of valves. The following values of KM are recommended for
Johnson Controls globe valves:

0.7 1/2 to 2 inch - Brass Body

0.5 2-1/2 to 6 inch - Cast Iron Body

Example:
Given:
1 inch valve with an inlet pressure of 30 psig and 180 degree water
flowing through it
Find:
The Maximum Allowable Pressure Drop (∆P)
Solution:
The valve recovery coefficient (KM) is 0.7. The absolute vapor
pressure (Pv) from Table III is 7.51 psia.
∆P = 0.7*{(30.0 + 14.7)-7.51} = 26.0 psi
It would not be recommended based on the example to size
for a full flow pressure drop of greater than 26.0 psi.
 A cavitation index, called Sigma (σ), has been developed and applied to quantify
cavitation in control valves. Sigma represents the ratio of the potential for resisting cavity
formation to the potential for causing cavity formation. This cavitation index is defined as
follows:

Where:
P1 = Upstream pressure (psia), measured two pipe
diameters upstream from the valve
P2 = Downstream pressure (psia), measured six pipe
diameters downstream from the valve
PV = Vapor pressure of the liquid at flowing temperature
• σ > 2.0 No cavitation is occurring.
• 1.7 < σ < 2.0 No cavitation control required.
Hardened trim provides protection.
• 1.5 < σ < 1.7 Some cavitation control required.
Mutual impingement trim may work.
• 1.0 < σ < 1.5 Potential for severe cavitation.
Use staged pressure drop trim.
• σ < 1.0 Flashing is occurring.
Valve Sizing and Selection Procedure

Sizing flow valves is a science with many rules of thumb that few

people agree on. In this article a more standard procedure is defined

for sizing a valve as well as helping to select the appropriate type of

valve. Please note that the correlation within this article is for turbulent

flow
STEP #1: Define the system
The system is pumping water from one tank to another through
a piping system with a total pressure drop of 150 psi. The fluid is water
at 70 deg. F. Design (maximum) flowrate of 150 gpm, operating flow
rate of 110 gpm, and a minimum flowrate of 25 gpm. The pipe diameter
is 3 inches. At 70 deg. F, water has a specific gravity of 1.0.
Key Variables: Total pressure drop, design flow, operating flow, minimum
flow, pipe diameter, specific gravity
STEP #2: Define a maximum allowable pressure drop for the valve

Use the procedure above when Valve Recovery Coefficient(Km) is

available from data sheet of manufacturer. Otherwise, follow the

procedure using “rule of thumb” as given below:

The usual rule of thumb is that a valve should be designed to use

10-15% of the total pressure drop or 10 psi, whichever is greater. For

this system, 10% of the total pressure drop is 15 psi which is what we'll

use as our allowable pressure drop when the valve is wide open (the

pump in our system is easily capable of the additional pressure drop).

STEP #3: Calculate the valve characteristic
STEP #4: Preliminary valve selection

The Cv value should be used as a guide in the valve selection, not

a hard and fast rule. Some other considerations are:

a. Never use a valve that is less than half the pipe size

b. Avoid using the lower 10% and upper 20% of the valve stroke.

The valve is much easier to control in the 10-80% stroke

range.
 Before a valve can be selected, decide what type of valve will be used For our case,
we'll assume we're using an equal percentage, globe valve. The valve chart for this type of
valve is shown below. This is a typical chart that will be supplied by the manufacturer
 In this case, it appears the 2 inch valve will work well for our Cv
value at about 80-85% of the stroke range. Notice that the choice did
not squeeze the Cv into the 1 1/2 valve which would need to be at
100% stroke to handle our maximum flow. If this valve were used, two
consequences would be experienced: the pressure drop would be a
little higher than 15 psi at our design (max) flow and the valve would be
difficult to control at maximum flow. Also, there would be no room for
error with this valve, but the valve chosen will allow for flow surges
beyond the 150 gpm range with severe headaches!
STEP #5: Check the Cv and stroke percentage at the
minimum flow
If the stroke percentage falls below 10% at our
minimum flow, a smaller valve may have to be used in some
cases.
Referring back to our valve chart, a Cv of 6.5 (Cv at 25
gpm min. flow rate) would correspond to a stroke percentage of
around 35-40% which is certainly acceptable. Notice that the
maximum pressure drop of 15 psi once again was used in our
calculation.
STEP #6: Check the gain across applicable flowrates

Gain is defined as:

Now, at the three flowrates:

Qmin = 25 gpm
Qop = 110 gpm
Qdes = 150 gpm

the corresponding Cv values are 6.5, 28, and 39. The corresponding
stroke percentages are 35%, 73%, and 85% respectively.
 Construct the following table:

Gain #1 = 85/38 = 2.2

Gain #2 = 40/12 = 3.3
The difference between these values should be less than 50% of
the higher value. 0.5 (3.3) = 1.65 and 3.3 - 2.2 = 1.10. Since 1.10 is less
than 1.65, there should be no problem in controlling the valve. Also note
that the gain should never be less than 0.50.