Introduction
Temperature is the most important among all
environmental factors that determines the
rate of plant growth and development.
The relationship between the amount of heat
and plant development was first quantified by
Reaumer in 1935 by summing up mean daily
temperature, above a certain threshold
temperature, during each plant development
phase. This concept assumes that there is a
direct linear relationship between plant
growth and temperature.
Heat Units
Crop heat unit (CHU) or thermal time is a
temperature response of development that differs
between day and night.
It is an energy term calculated for each day and
accumulated from planting to the harvest date.
They are calculated daily using the daily maximum
and minimum temperature for your area.
Heat units are involved in several physiological
processes like specific amount of heat units
required for the plant at each stage from its
germination to harvest of the crop would vary.
Response of plant to temperature
How Are Heat Units Computed?
1. Sine Curve Heat Units: The single sine curve
procedure reconstructs the daily temperature
cycle by forcing a sine curve through the
maximum and minimum temperatures for the
day.
The area bounded by the sine curve and upper
and lower temperature thresholds represents the
temperature or heat that contributes to growth
and development (grey area).
Mostly used in semi-arid and arid regions that
experience large diurnal fluctuations in
temperature.
Calculation of heat units by sine
curve method
2. Mean Temperature Heat Units
Computation by mean temperature
procedure is generally simpler than that of
the sine curve approach. The procedure can
be seen from GDD calculation.
most widely used in humid regions where
diurnal temperature fluctuations are
relatively small during the growing season.
Applications of Heat Unit concept
Assess the suitability of a region for production of
a particular crop.
It helps in selecting a variety from several
varieties to be grown in a new area.
Predict best timing of fertilizer or herbicide and
plant growth regulator application.
Estimate the heat stress on crops.
Guides the agricultural operations and planning
land use
Forecast of planting and harvesting dates and
yield.
Limitations of Heat Unit
concept
It assumes linear relationship between temperature
and growth which is not correct.
The concept does not allow phenological requirements
and occurrence of low or high temperature.
It does not take the effect of light on growth probably
the better index.
The daily range of temperature is not taken into
consideration, which is often more significant than
mean daily temperature.
The effect of altitude, latitude and topography on crop
growth is not be taken into account.
Wind, hail, disease may influence the heat unit.
Soil fertility may influence the crop maturity. This is
not taken into account.
TYPES OF HEAT UNITS
Growing Degree Days (GDD)
Photothermal Unit (PTU)
Heliothermal Unit (HTU)
Phenothermal Index (PTI)
Heat Use Efficiency (HUE)
Chill units (CU)
GROWING DEGREE DAYS
Also known as growing degree units, thermal units, day-
degree, degree-day.
GDD is defined as number of temperature degrees above
a certain threshold base temperature.
GDD is calculated by taking average of daily maximum
and minimum temperature compared with base
temperature.
For example, a day with a high of 23 °C and a low of 12 °C
(and a base of 10 °C) would contribute 7.5 GDDs.
If the mean daily temperature is lower than the base temperature
then GDD is taken as 0.
Any temperature below Tbase is set to Tbase before calculating the
average.
The maximum temperature is usually capped at 30 °C.
Threshold temperatures of agricultural crops
Crops Temperature (oC)
Wheat, Barley 4.4
Potato, Oats, Sugar beet 5.0
Sorghum, Maize, Groundnut 8.0-10.0
Rice 10.0-12.0
Tobacco 13.0-14.0
Parthasarathi et al, TNAU Res & Review (2013) 2: 1-11
GDD requirement of different crops
Parthasarathi et al, TNAU,
Res & Review (2013) 2: 1-11
MERITS OF GDD
GDD concept guides the agricultural operations.
Forecast of crop harvest date and yield can be made.
It helps to identify potential area for a new crop.
It helps in selecting a variety from several varieties.
DEMERITS OF GDD
No consideration is given to diurnal temperature range,
which is often more significant than mean daily value.
The effect of altitude, latitude and topography on crop
growth can not be accounted for.
Soil fertility may influence the crop maturity. This is not
taken into account.
Wind, hail, disease may influence the heat unit.
PHOTOTHERMAL UNIT (PTU)
PTU is product of growing degree day and corresponding
day length for that day .
PTU =∑ GDD × Day length
where day length refers to maximum possible sunshine hours.
Its units are oC day hours.
HELIOTHERMAL UNIT (HTU)
HTU is the product of GDD and corresponding actual
sunshine hours for that day.
HTU = ∑GDD × Actual sunshine hours
Its units are oC day hours.
PHENOTHERMAL INDEX
PTI is the ratio of degree days to the number of days
between two phenological stages.
PTI = GDDs between two phenological stages
No. of days taken between two phenophases
Units of PTI are oC day day-1
HEAT USE EFFICIENCY (HUE)
HUE is ratio of crop yield or total dry matter produced to the
total degree days required by crop up to maturity or particular
stage respectively.
Seed yield or dry matter (kgha-
1
)
Heat use efficiency (HUE) = ----------------------------------------
Accumulated heat units (oC
day)
Its units are kgha-1oC-1day-1
Kingra and kaur, 2013
J Agrl Phy
Kingra and kaur, 2013
J Agrl Phy
CHILL UNITS
“Chill Units” is one of the methods to describe the effectiveness
of winter chilling.
When cold weather starts, buds of the fruit trees like peach
become dormant.
As long as they have enough chilling units, flowers and leaf
buds develop normally.
But if they do not receive sufficient, there may be one or more
physiological symptoms like delayed foliation, reduced fruit set
and poor fruit quality.
Procedure of calculating chill units
A base temperature say 7oC is chosen.
If the T is above this, plant is unable to accumulate chilling.
A temperature of one degree below base for one hour causes one
chill hour to accumulate.
Below 0oC, chilling is ineffective so chilling is taken as 0.
By summing these hourly amounts of chilling over winter, we
can have a measure of how cold the winter was.
IMPACT OF HEAT UNITS
ON CROP PRODUCTION
Requirement of heat units for some important
processes
Growth and development
Nitrification
Biomass accumulation
Physiological maturity
Yield
Growth and development
(i) Leaf Appearance: The rate of leaf emergence is affected by
temperature. An increase in temperature speeds up leaf
emergence.
Thermal time or GDD required for each leaf to appear is called
Phyllochron.
The crops, which require different thermal duration for the
phyllochron, are listed below:
Crop Phyllochron (day °C)
Sorghum 54.0
Cotton 20.0
Soybean 18.9
Pearl millet 75.0–98.0
Maize 38.0–45.5
(ii) Initiation to Flowering: eg., Winter wheat is more sensitive
to vernalization, whereas spring wheat shows little
sensitivity. It is effective from 0 to 7/8 °C but less effective
between 7/8 °C and 18 °C.
(iii) Terminal Spikelet Initiation: The terminal spikelet initiation is
strongly influenced by temperature and needs about three
phyllochrons in wheat.
(iv) End of Leaf Growth: The development of leaves stops in this stage
and takes duration of thermal time of two phyllochrons.
(v) End of Ear Growth to Beginning of Grain: This ear growth is
dependent on temperature and photoperiod. The total biomass stored
in stem and roots is translocated to kernels.
(vi) Grain Filling: It is an important phenological stage to set grain size.
The thermal time varies with different genotypes. The thermal time
requirement is 500 day °C after flowering or 20 day °C after anthesis
to maturity at which a rapid increase in grain weight takes place.
GDD requirement for development of wheat
Parthasarathi et al (2013), Tamil Nadu
Res & Review 2: 1-11
Temperature response of time from sowing to
various developmental stages in green pea
Olivier and Annandale (1998), S. Africa
Field Crops Res 56: 301-07
Effect on Nitrification
Nitrification process is initiated according to the
degree-day accumulation. By the time 1000 growing
degree-days have accumulated, 90% of the applied
nitrogen has been converted to the nitrate form,
assuming that there is optimum moisture level.
Effect on Biomass, physiological
maturity and yield
GDDs affect the yield response mainly by influencing
biomass accumulation, flowering performance and length of
growing season.
An increase in temperature during early season of crop
growth leads to completion of vegetative phase within a
shorter period of time which results in reduced accumulation
of biomass.
An increase in temperature in case of wheat at later stages
of growth (grain filling) leads to forced maturity and there is
reduction in length of grain filling period.
Yield is affected due to these factors.
GDD accumulation and yield of
sunflower as affected by season
Season GDD No. of Achene Achene oil
accumulated achenes/head yield content (%)
(kg/ha)
Spring 2128.75 801.75 3453.07 41.71C
Autumn 1387.63 545.00 1594.25 39.95
Kaleem et al (2011), Pakistan
Nature & Sci 9:73-81
Relationship between pod yield and heat
use efficiency in groundnut
Sowing date Cultivar Accumulated Pod yield HUE (kg/ha/° day)
GDD (° day) (kg/ha)
1st June, 06 M 522 2555.4 1927 0.75
M 548 2574.5 1581 0.61
20th June, 06 M 522 2349.9 2241 0.95
M 548 2376.9 1860 0.78
10th July M 522 2160.6 2150 1.00
M 548 2199.7 1820 0.83
Kingra and Kaur (2011), Ludhiana
J Res PAU 48: 1-4
Impact of rising temperature on growing season of wheat
Satyanarayan et al, CRIDA, Hydrabad
[Link]
The temperature rise reduced the number of days
required to attain a particular stage during 2071-2100
period than during 1961 –1990 period.
The duration for the maturity is faster when the date of
sowing is late and vice-versa.
The crop attains physiological maturity in 125 days,
119 days and 113 days for the sowing dates 30 th October,
10th November and 20th November, respectively, during
2071-2100 period.
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