Surveying
(SUR-222)
BCEC 2
Lecture Notes
MR Richie Muheya
Email: rmuheya@[Link]
Cell : 0999933948 /
0888113510
Basic Survey Measurements
• Distance
• Angle
• Height (vertical distance from a specified datum)
Distance Measurement
• Pacing
• Odometer
• Chaining (Taping)
• Stadia
• Electronic Distance Measuring (EDM)
• Global Positioning System (GPS)
Pacing
• Measuring distance by
counting steps (paces).
• Distance is calculated by
multiplying the number of
paces by the individuals
pace factor.
• Advantages
• Simple
• No specialized equipment
• Disadvantages
Topography affects accuracy
Requires practice to take a consistent
pace.
Must be able to traverse the distance.
Only measures slope distance
Distance Measuring Methods--Odometer Wheel
• An odometer is a mechanical
revolution counter.
• An odometer wheel is a wheel which
uses an odometer to count the
rotations of the wheel.
• The gear ratio of the odometer is
usually designed to provide a
measurement of the distance in
standard units--feet, decimal feet, feet
and inches and/or meters.
• Disadvantages
• Advantages – Accuracy is influenced by surface
– Easy to use conditions.
– Must be able to traverse distance.
– Low tech
–
ErrorOnly
1% measures slope distance.
of distance 5
Distance Measuring Methods--Chaining
• Traditional method of measuring
distance.
• Usually 100 foot lengths.
• Two common types.
• Add (extended foot)
• Cut (first foot)
• Available in steel and cloth.
• Advantages • Disadvantages
– High precision – Multiple people
– 0.001 foot accuracy – Must have a clear,
– Can be used to measure travelable route.
– High precision requires
horizontal distances. 6
temperature and tension
Error 0.1% of distance.
correction.
Steel Chain Temperature Correction
• Steel expands and contracts at fixed rate dependent
upon the temperature.
• The temperature correction for a steel tape is:
Ct L x x (T - Ts )
Ct = correction (ft or M)
L = Length of tape (ft or M)
= coeficient of thermal expansion
(6.5 x 10-6 ft/o F)
(1.15 x 10-5 ft/0C
T = Measurement temperature ( o F or o C)
Ts Tape standardized temperature ( o F or o C) 7
Example
• Determine the correction for a steel tape when
used to measure a distance of 250 feet when
the air temperature was 100 oF and the
standardized temperature is 72oF.
Ct = L x x T Ts
= 250 ft x 6.5 E - 6 x 100 - 72
0.0455 ft
= 0.5 in
8
Tension
Therefore ∆T is the difference between field and standard
tension E is modulus of elasticity in N/mm2
A is cross-sectional area of the tape in mm2
L is measured length
in m; and CT is the extension and thus correction to the tape
length in m. As the tape is stretched under the extra tension,
the correction is positive
Sag
slope
Standardisation
• During a period of use, a tape will gradually
alter
in length for a variety of reasons
• The amount of change can be found by having
the tape standardized at baseline (Chileka
Airport)
Distance Measuring Methods--Stadia
Distance by
stadia requires
an instrument
with stadia cross
hairs.
The distance between the
stadia crosshairs is designed
so that the divergence of the
sights across the two stadia
crosshairs is 1.0 feet when
the instrument is 100 feet
13
from the rod.
(Assuming an instrument
Distance Measuring Methods--Stadia~cont.
• The distance between
the TSR and BSR is
called the stadia interval.
• This results in the
equation:
Hor. Dist. = SI x SF
SI = Stadia interval • Disadvantages of stadia
SF = Stadia factor – Must have instrument
with stadia crosshairs.
• Advantages of stadia – May require multiple
– Works by line of sight. Not instrument setups.
necessary to walk distance.
– Distances can be measured with The accuracy is 1.0 ft when
the same setup used to record direct reading and 0.1 ft
elevations. when using the target. 14
Standardisation
Distance Measuring Methods--Stadia ~Cont.
Because SI = TSR - BSR, the
more common equation is:
Hor. Dist. = TSR - BSR x SF
For modern instruments the
stadia factor (SF) is 100.
What is the stadia distance
for the illustration?
Dist = TSR - BSR x SF
= 6.01 - 5.47 x 100
= 0.54 x 100
= 54 ft
16
Horizontal Distance--1/2 Stadia
When the top or bottom
stadia hair rod reading is
obscured, a process called
1/2 stadia can be used.
When I/2 stadia is used the
elevation crosshair, and
which ever stadia crosshair
that can be read, is used.
Because this stadia interval
is 1/2 of the standard
interval, it is multiplied
two.
Horizontalby Distance = TSR - Elev x 2 x 100
= 7.34 - 6.21 x 2 x 100
Example: Determine the horizontal = 226 ft
distance when the TRS = 7.34 and the
elevation = 6.21. 17
Distance Measuring
Methods--EDM
• EDM = Electronic
Distance Measuring
• The term EDM is used to
describe a category of
instruments that
measure distance using
an electronic signal.
• The instrument
How the process works can be broadcasts a focused
shown using the velocity signal that is returned by
equation. Distance a prism or reflection
Velocity = from the object.
Time
Rearranging the equation for distance results in:
Distance = Velocity x Time
18
Distance Measuring Methods--EDM~cont.
Therefore, if the speed of the signal is known (speed of
light), and the time for the signal to travel to the target
and back is known, the distance can be calculated.
Advantages of EDM’s Disadvantages of EDM’s
1. Precise measurement of 1. Electronic = batterers
distance. 2. Accuracy affected by
2. Line of sight instrument atmospheric conditions.
3. Capable of measuring 3. Can be expensive
long distances
4. Reflector less are single
person operation
Error ± (2 mm + 2 ppm x D)
19
Slope vs. Horizontal
Distance
• Distances can be
measured in two
ways:
1. Horizontal distance
2. Slope (surface)
distance
• The horizontal distance between two points is the distance
between those points measured on a horizontal plane.
• The slope distance between two points is a distance
measured along the surface of the earth.
20
Horizontal Distance
When horizontal distance is required, the
individual has two choices.
1. Use equipment and techniques that record horizontal
distance.
2. Record slope distance and collect the additional
information required to calculate horizontal distance.
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Measuring Horizontal Distance
• Chain
• Stadia
• EDM
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Horizontal Distance cont.
Chaining
• To measure horizontal distance with a chain, a
level and plumb bob must be used.
• The chain is held level, horizontal, and the
measurement at the elevated end is
transferred using a plumb bob.
• This method is limited to slopes of 5% or less.
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Horizontal Distance Conti…
Chaining
• When horizontal
distances are
measured by
chaining on slopes
> 5%, the
technique called
“breaking chain”
must be used.
Horizontal Distance-cont. Breaking Chain
• “Breaking Chain” is used when ever the slope is > 5%
because when a 100 foot chain is used on a 5% slope,
the elevated end will be 5 feet above the ground.
• “Breaking the Chain” into shorter segments reduces the
height of the elevated end of the chain.
• Using a standard distance reduces the change of errors.
• A standard distance was not used in the illustration.
25
Horizontal Distance-cont.
Stadia
The stadia method measures distance
by line of sight through an
instrument.
When the instrument is level, the
distance measured is a horizontal
distance.
26
Electronic Distance
Measuring (EDM)
• The signal from an EDM travels in a straight line.
• When the instrument is level the distances is horizontal.
• If the instrument is not level, the distance is slope
measurement.
Note: some instruments, such as total stations, measure
slope distance and vertical angle and will output horizontal
distance, vertical distance or slope distance.
27
Calculating Horizontal
Distance
• To calculate horizontal distance you must know
the slope distance and one additional bit of
information for each measurement.
• You must know either one of the following.
• % slope
• Change in elevation
• Vertical angle.
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