point data transfer, point

to multi point data

transfer & network
topologies, sub-nets,
network topologies
referred with web,
introduction to web
servers and cloud
computing
 OSI Model
• Open Systems Interconnection (OSI) model describes
seven layers that computer systems use to communicate
over a network.

• OSI model is divided into seven distinct layers, each with

specific responsibilities, from physical hardware
connections to high-level application interactions.

• Each layer of the OSI model interacts with the layer

directly above and below it.
OSI Model
 OSI Model
• Application Layer serves as the interface between the
end-user applications and the underlying network services.

• This layer provides protocols and services that are

directly utilized by end-user applications to communicate
across the network.

• Key functionalities of the Application Layer include

resource sharing, remote file access, and network
management.
 OSI Model
• Presentation Layer, also known as the syntax layer, is
responsible for translating data between the application
layer and the network format.

• It ensures that data sent from the application layer of one

system is readable by the application layer of another
system.

• This layer handles data formatting, encryption, and

compression, facilitating interoperability between
different systems.

• One of the key roles of the Presentation Layer is data

translation and code conversion.
 OSI Model
• Session Layer manages and controls the connections
between computers.

• It establishes, maintains, and terminates connections,

ensuring that data exchanges occur efficiently and in an
organized manner.

• The layer is responsible for session checkpointing and

recovery, which allows sessions to resume after
interruptions.
 OSI Model
• Transport Layer provides end-to-end communication
services for applications.

• It ensures complete data transfer, error recovery, and

flow control between hosts.

• This layer segments and reassembles data for efficient

transmission and provides reliability with error detection
and correction mechanisms.

• Protocols at this layer include Transmission Control

Protocol (TCP) and User Datagram Protocol (UDP).
 OSI Model
• Network Layer is responsible for data routing,
forwarding, and addressing.

• It determines the best physical path for data to reach its

destination based on network conditions, the priority of
service, and other factors.

• This layer manages logical addressing through IP

addresses and handles packet forwarding.

• Key protocols at this layer include the Internet Protocol

(IP), which is important for routing and addressing,
Internet Control Message Protocol (ICMP) for diagnostic
and error-reporting purposes
 OSI Model
• Data Link Layer is responsible for node-to-node data
transfer and error detection and correction.

• It ensures that data is transmitted to the correct device

on a local network segment.

• This layer manages MAC (Media Access Control)

addresses and is divided into two sublayers: Logical Link
Control (LLC) and Media Access Control (MAC).

• Protocols and technologies at this layer include Ethernet,

which defines the rules for data transmission over local
area networks (LANs), and Point-to-Point Protocol
(PPP) for direct connections between two network nodes.
•
OSI Model
Physical Layer is responsible for the physical
connection between devices.

• It defines the hardware elements involved in the network,

including cables, switches, and other physical
components.

• This layer also specifies the electrical, optical, and

radio characteristics of the network.

• Functions of the Physical Layer include the modulation,

bit synchronization, and transmission of raw binary
data over the physical medium.

• Technologies such as Fiber Optics and Wi-Fi operate at

IP Addressing
• What is an IP Address?

• Need for IP Addresses

• IP Address Structure (IPv4)

• Classes of IPv4 Addresses (A, B, C, D, E)

• Public vs. Private IP Addresses

• IPv6
IP (Internet Protocol )
Addressing
What is an IP Address?

•IP address is an unique numerical label assigned to every device

connected to a computer network for communication

Need for Addressing

• Identification: To uniquely identify a device on a network.

• Location Addressing: Provides the location of the device in the
network, enabling the framework for communication.
• Communication: Essential for any form of data exchange—sending
an email, loading a website, streaming video.
IP (Internet Protocol )
Addressing
Anatomy of an IPv4 Address

•IPv4 addresses are 32-bit numbers.

•Represented in Dotted-Decimal Notation for human readability.
•Example: [Link]
•Each number (e.g., 192) is called an octet (8 bits).
•Each octet can range from 0 to 255.
•Total possible addresses: ~4.3 billion (2³²).
IP (Internet Protocol )
Addressing
An IP address is logically divided into two parts:
1. Network ID (Prefix):
•Identifies the specific network the device belongs to.
•Like the street name in a mailing address.
2. Host ID (Suffix):
•Identifies the specific device within that network.
•Like the house number on that street.
•The Subnet Mask determines where the Network ID ends and the Host ID
begins.
IP (Internet Protocol )
Addressing
Address Classes:
• Class A: (e.g., 1.x.x.x to 126.x.x.x)
• Very large networks. First octet is Network ID.
• Class B: (e.g., 128.1.x.x to 191.255.x.x)
• Medium-sized networks (e.g., large universities). First two octets
are Network ID.
• Class C: (e.g., 192.0.1.x to 223.255.255.x)
• Small networks. First three octets are Network ID.
• Class D: Reserved for Multicasting.
• Class E: Reserved for Experimental use.
IP (Internet Protocol )
Addressing
Public vs. Private IP Addresses:
Public IP Address:
• Assigned by ISP.
• Unique across the entire internet.
• Used to communicate with the wider internet.
• Router has a public IP.
Private IP Address:
• Used inside a private network (e.g., your home Wi-Fi).
• Not routable on the public internet.
• laptop, phone, and printer have private IPs.
• Common ranges: 10.x.x.x, 172.16.x.x - 172.31.x.x, 192.168.x.x
IP (Internet Protocol )
Addressing
With ~4.3 billion addresses, the explosive growth of the internet and IoT
has led to a critical shortage

IPv6 (The Future)

•128-bit address space (vs. 32-bit in IPv4).

•Representation: 8 groups of 4 hexadecimal digits, separated by colons.

Example: 2001:0db8:85a3:0000:0000:8a2e:0370:7334

•Massive Scale: 340 undecillion addresses

•Built-in security (IPsec), simpler header format, better efficiency.

IP (Internet Protocol )
Addressing
Subnet (Sub-network)

•is a logical partition of a larger IP network into smaller, more manageable

network segments.

•Simplified Network Management: easier to manage, troubleshoot, and

monitor a network

•Efficient Use of IP Addresses: Subnetting allows to allocate the exact

number of IP addresses needed for a specific segment, preventing IP
address wastage.

•Enhanced Security: Subnets act as natural security boundaries

Point-to-point data transfer
• is a direct, dedicated communication link between two distinct
endpoints (nodes)

• Data travels directly from the source to the destination without any other
devices

• Communication can be:

• Full Duplex: Data can flow in both directions simultaneously (like a

telephone call).

• Half Duplex: Data can flow in both directions, but only one direction at a
time (like a walkie-talkie).
Point-to-point data transfer
Point-to-point data transfer
Protocols for Point-to-Point Transfer

• PPP (Point-to-Point Protocol): The most common data link layer

protocol. It establishes a direct connection between two nodes, providing
authentication, encryption, and compression. It's the foundation of most
dial-up and broadband (DSL) connections.

• HDLC (High-Level Data Link Control): A predecessor to PPP, often

used in leased-line connections between routers.
Point-to-Multi-point data
transfer
• is a communication model where a single source (the "point") transmits
data to multiple destinations (the "multipoint") simultaneously

• Single Sender, Multiple Receivers: one central node (hub, root, or

parent) that sends data to multiple subordinate nodes (leaves, children,
or clients).

• Efficient Distribution: It is highly efficient for distributing the same

data to many locations,

Unidirectional or Bidirectional: It can be:

Unidirectional (Simplex): Data flows only from the central point to the
receivers (e.g., traditional radio/TV broadcast).
Bidirectional (Asymmetric): The primary flow is from the central point
out, but return paths exist for the receivers to send control signals or
requests back to the central point (e.g., cable modem systems,
satellite internet).
Point-to-Multi-point data
transfer
P2MP systems works on specific addressing schemes:
Broadcast: data is sent to all devices on the network segment, inefficient if
only a subset of devices needs the data.

Multicast: source sends a single packet addressed to a special multicast

group address.
Example: Video conferencing with multiple participants, live stock ticker
updates, streaming live video to many employees.

Unicast : source creates separate individual (unicast) streams for each

recipient. While it appears as one-to-many from the user's perspective, it
places a heavy load on the server and network bandwidth.
Point-to-Multi-point data
transfer
Network topologies referred
with web
• Web is a Hybrid, and not a single, pure topology

• Primarily combining Star and Mesh topologies at different layers

1. Client-Server Model -Star Topology (Application Level)

Network topologies referred
with web
2. Physical Internet Backbone (A Partial Mesh Topology)
Network topologies referred
with web
3. Content Delivery Networks (CDNs) – (Distributed Star Topology)
Network topologies referred
with web
4. Peer-to-Peer (P2P) Networks (A Mesh Topology)
Introduction to Web Servers
• Web Server is a combination of hardware and software that fulfills
requests from the internet

• Primary job is to store, process and deliver web pages to clients

• Hardware involves physical computer (or a virtual) to stores the files of

a website (HTML, CSS, JavaScript, images, etc.) with Internet
connectivity

• Software that understands URLs (web addresses) and the HTTP/HTTPS

protocol for accepting Requests and to Respond
Introduction to Web Servers
Working of Web Server (The HTTP Cycle):

•Request: An URL (e.g., [Link]) into browser (the client) creates

an HTTP Request and sends it over the internet to the web server's address.
•Processing: Web server receives the request and finds out the resource for
providing the service (e.g., the homepage [Link]).
•Response: Server retrieves the requested file(s) from its storage. It then
packages them into an HTTP Response and sends this package back to
browser.
•Rendering: Browser receives the response. And renders the complete web
page as response or service.
 Cloud Computing

• It enables storing data and files on the internet that

can be access either through the public internet or a
dedicated private network connection.
• The provider securely stores, manages, and
maintains the storage servers, infrastructure, and
network to ensure you have access to the data when
you need it at virtually unlimited scale, and with elastic
capacity.
• Cloud storage removes the need to buy and manage
your own data storage infrastructure, giving you
agility, scalability, and durability, with anytime,
anywhere data access.
Cloud Computing- Why is cloud
storage important?

• Cloud storage delivers cost-effective, scalable

storage
• With cloud storage, there is no hardware to purchase,
no storage to provision, and no extra capital
• Cloud storage delivers virtually unlimited storage
capacity, allowing you to scale up as much and as
• Quickly
• Increased agility- With cloud storage, resources are
only a click away
• Faster deployment
• Efficient data management
• Virtually unlimited scalability
Cloud Model
Cloud model can be divided into two parts:
(1) Service model and
(2) Deployment model
Service model is categorized as:
1. Software-as-a-Service (SaaS)
2. Platform-as-a-Service (PaaS), and
3. Infrastructure-as-a-Service (IaaS)
Deployment model is further categorized as:
1. Private cloud
2. Community cloud
3. Public cloud, and
4. Hybrid cloud
Cloud Model – Service Models
Cloud Service Models
IaaS (Infrastructure as a Service)

•Provides the fundamental building blocks of computing: virtualized

servers, networking, and storage over the internet

•Provides physical hardware, hypervisors, storage, and networking

Applications:
•Migrating existing enterprise applications to the cloud.

•Hosting highly customizable or complex websites.

•Big Data analysis (using raw virtual machines for processing).

•Storage, backup, and recovery.

Cloud Service Models
PaaS (Platform as a Service)

•Provides platform allowing customers to develop, run, and manage

applications without the complexity of building and maintaining the underlying
infrastructure.
•It's an environment for building and delivering software.
•Provides servers, storage, networking, operating systems, and middleware
(e.g., databases, development tools).
Applications:
•Application development and testing frameworks.

•API development and management.

•CI/CD (Continuous Integration/Continuous Deployment) pipelines.

•Enabling development teams to focus on code, not infrastructure.

Cloud Service Models
SaaS (Software as a Service)

•delivers fully functional, cloud-hosted application software over the

internet.
•Provides the application, data, runtime, middleware, OS, virtualization,
servers, storage, and networking.
Applications:
•Email and collaboration tools (e.g., Gmail, Microsoft 365).

•Customer Relationship Management (CRM) software (e.g., Salesforce).

•File storage and sharing (e.g., Dropbox, Google Drive).

•Almost any end-user application accessed via a web browser.

Cloud deployment Models
Community Cloud

•It is a collaborative, multi-tenant cloud infrastructure

•It is shared by several organizations with common concerns of security,
compliance, or mission etc
•It is designed for a specific community of consumers with shared interests,
rather than being open (Public) and close (Private)
Cloud deployment Models
Community Cloud

Government Agencies: Multiple local, state, and federal agencies (e.g.,

police, tax, social services) need to share data and applications.

Healthcare Organizations: A group of hospitals, research labs, and insurance

companies.

Financial Services Industry (Banks, Insurance Companies): Banks within a

specific country or region for fraud detection analysis, know-your-customer
(KYC) checks, and trading platforms, Transactions

Educational and Research Institutions: group of universities participating in

a research project.

Industry Consortia: A group of companies in the same supply chain (e.g.,

automotive manufacturers and their parts suppliers).
Cloud deployment Models
Community Cloud

Cost-Effectiveness: Costs are shared among all community members, making

it cheaper than each organization building its own private cloud.
Enhanced Security & Compliance: The infrastructure is tailored to the
specific security, privacy, and regulatory requirements of the community,
offering more control than a public cloud.
Collaboration: Provides a shared platform that makes collaboration and data
sharing between organizations much easier and more efficient.
Scalability: Offers better scalability than a single private cloud, as the
resources are pooled for the entire community.
Cloud deployment Models
Community Cloud

Limited Scalability: While scalable, it is not as vast or limitless as a major

public cloud (AWS, Azure, GCP).
Fixed Cost: While costs are shared, the community members are typically
responsible for the capital and operational expenditures, which can be high and
fixed, unlike the pure pay-as-you-go model of public clouds.
Governance Complexity: Decision-making can be challenging. All members
must agree on security policies, upgrade schedules, cost-sharing models, and
other governance issues.
Potential for High Costs if Underutilized: If the community is small or doesn't
fully utilize the cloud, the cost per organization can become high.
Cloud deployment Models
Public Cloud

•It is cloud infrastructure is provisioned for open use by the general public.
•It is owned, managed, and operated by a third-party cloud service provider
(CSP)

Application:
•Web hosting and email.
•SaaS applications (e.g., Salesforce, Zoom).
•Development and test environments.
•Big data analytics projects.
Cloud deployment Models
Public Cloud

Cost-Effective: No capital expenditure; you pay only for what you use.
No Maintenance: The provider handles all maintenance and updates.
High Scalability & Elasticity: Resources are virtually unlimited and can be
scaled up or down instantly.
Reliability: Vast networks of data centers ensure high uptime.

Less Control: limited control over the underlying infrastructure.

Security & Compliance: While generally secure, the shared responsibility

model may not meet specific regulatory requirements for highly sensitive data.
Cloud deployment Models
Hybrid Cloud

•Composition of two or more distinct cloud infrastructures (private, public)

•It remain unique entities but still bound together by standardized or
proprietary technology to enables data and application portability.
•Flexibility and optimization of existing infrastructure.
Cloud Bursting: Running an application primarily on a private cloud but
"bursting" to a public cloud during peak demand.
Gradual Migration: Migrating to the public cloud in phases.
Disaster Recovery: Using the public cloud as a backup and recovery site for
the private cloud.
Cloud deployment Models
Hybrid Cloud

•Flexibility: Run workloads in the most appropriate environment.

•Optimized Costs: Keep sensitive data on a private cloud while using the
public cloud for less critical, scalable workloads (often called "cloud bursting").
•Risk Management: Meet specific security and regulatory requirements while
still benefiting from public cloud innovation.

•Complexity: Can be complex to set up, manage, and secure due to the
integration between different environments.
•Network Latency: Data transfer between private and public clouds can
introduce latency.
Working principle of Networking
equipment
Router:

•It is the device that connects different networks together, (most commonly
local network to the internet)

•It operates at the Network Layer (Layer 3).

•Its primary job is to route data packets between different networks based
on IP Addresses (logical address assigned to a device on a network)

•Used to provide Inter-Network Connectivity through ISP's network and the

wider internet.

•Utilizes IP-Based Routing by using a Routing Table—a map of the network

—to determine the best path for a packet to reach its destination IP address.

•Performs Network Address Translation (NAT) to allows all devices on

private LAN to share a single public IP address provided by your ISP.
Working principle of Networking
equipment
Router:

•Acts as DHCP (Dynamic Host Configuration Protocol )Server by

automatically assigns IP addresses and other network configuration
information, like the subnet mask and default gateway, to devices on a network

•Most routers have basic firewall capabilities to filter traffic and protect the
internal network from unsolicited traffic from the internet.
Working principle of Networking
equipment
Switch (Intelligent Bridge)

•intelligent successor to the hub and is the backbone of most local area
networks (LANs).

•operates at the Data Link Layer (Layer 2). It is "smarter" because it learns,
filters, and forwards data based on MAC (Media Access Control) Addresses

•MAC sublayer of the Data Link Layer in the responsible for controlling
access to a shared communication medium like a wired or wireless network.

•builds and maintains a MAC Address Table that maps which device (MAC
address) is connected to which physical port.

•Performs Selective Forwarding by looking at the destination MAC address

only to the specific port
Working principle of Networking
equipment
Switch (Intelligent Bridge)

•Supports Full-Duplex communication Each port on a switch allows devices to

send and receive data simultaneously without collisions.
Working principle of Networking
equipment
Hub (Dumb Repeater)

•Hub is the most basic and least intelligent device, now largely obsolete.

•It operates at the Physical Layer (Layer 1) when it receives an electrical

signal on one port, it regenerates that signal and broadcasts it out to every
single other port

•Broadcasts Everything: Every connected device receives the data intended

for any one device.

•Half-Duplex: Devices cannot send and receive data at the same time, leading
to collisions.

•Shared Bandwidth: All devices connected to a hub share the total bandwidth.
Working principle of Networking
equipment
Hub (Dumb Repeater)