Sensors and Transducers

Chapter- 2
Resistive Transducers and
Inductive Transducers
 Sensors and Transducers
Course Utilization for : [Link]. (ICT/AIDS Sem-5)

Prof. Bhavik H. Prajapati

Asst. Prof.
SPCE

2
 Transducer, Sensor, and Actuator

• Transducer: – a device that converts energy

from one form to another
• Sensor: – converts a physical parameter to an
electrical output (a type of transducer, e.g. a
microphone)
• Actuator: converts an electrical signal to a
physical output (opposite of a sensor, e.g. a
speaker)
 Classification of Transducers
• On The Basis of principle Used
 Capacitive
 Inductive
 Resistive Transducers
• Active/Passive
• Primary/Secondary
• Analog/Digital

 Transducers may be classified according to their application,

method of energy conversion, nature of the output signal,
and so on.
Linear Variable Differential Transformer
(LVDT)

(INDUCTIVE TRANSDUCER)
 Selecting a Transducer
• What is the physical quantity to be measured?
• Which transducer principle can best be used to measure this quantity?
• What accuracy is required for this measurement?

• Fundamental transducer parameters

– Physical conditions
– Environmental conditions
– Compatibility of the associated equipment
• Reducing the total measurement error :
– Using in-place system calibration with corrections performed in the
data reduction
– Artificially controlling the environment to minimize possible errors
 Linear Variable Differential Transformer
(LVDT)
Principle of LVDT:

• LVDT works under the principle of mutual

induction, and the displacement which is a
non-electrical energy is converted into an
electrical energy.
 Advantages of LVDT:

• 1)Infinite resolution(motion) is present in LVDT

• 2)High output
• 3)LVDT gives High sensitivity
• 4)Very good linearity
• 5)Ruggedness (rough but strong )
• 6)LVDT Provides Less friction
• 7)Low hysteresis (dissipate little energy during
normal operation)
• 8)LVDT gives Low power consumption
 Disadvantage of LVDT
• Relatively large displacement are required for
appreciable differential output

• They are sensitivity to drift magnetic fields

• Many times, the transducer performance is

affected by vibrations

• Temperature affects the performance

 Applications of LVDT

• LVDT is used to measure displacement ranging

from fraction millimeter to centimeter. (linear
distance)

• Acting as a secondary transducer, LVDT can be

used as a device to measure force, weight and
pressure, etc.
• Today, LVDTs are used in computerized manufacturing, robotics,
machine tools, combining research facilities, high-level analysis, and
analysis to detect damage caused by massive rock deformation or
other movements in the old buildings or structure, physical structure

• One of the special problems with historical buildings is that they can
easily be damaged by small deformations -This method is used to try
to detect failure in concrete slopes and warn or correct the condition.

• LVDT plays important role in geotechnical Instrumentations, as it is

used for Monitoring Ground Movements, Landslides and Structural
Stability
• It is mostly used in industries in the field of
Automation, Aircraft, Turbines, Satellite,
Hydraulics etc.

• LVDT plays an important role in the marine

and industry by Monitoring the Movements
and Positions of ships and Underwater
Structures.
Display the displacement versus output voltage graph for both left and
right movement and how the output voltage varies with linear
displacement
 Inductive Transducer
• Inductive transducers may be either be self
generating or passive type.
• The self generating type works on the basic
electrical generator principle: relative motion
between a conductor and magnetic field
induces a voltage in the magnetic field.
• Since it is the displacement which changes the
length of the air-gap, the self inductance is a
function of displacement.
• A separate coil is wound on each outside leg of an E
core and an iron bar is pivoted on the center leg.
• A magnet extends from each outside leg through an
air gap and through the iron bar to the center leg.
• The moving member is attached to one end of the
iron bar and causes the bar to wobble back and
forth, thereby varying the size of each air gap.
• The bridge consists of two transducer coils and a
tapped secondary of the input power transformers.
• It is balanced only when the inductance of the two
transducer coils are equal, i.e. when the iron bar is in
nearly exact horizontal position and the air gaps are equal.
• Whenever the iron bar at point A moves and alters the air
gap, the bridge becomes unbalanced by an amount
proportional to the change in inductance, which in turn is
proportional to the displacement of the moving member.
• The increase and decrease of the inductance with varying
air gap sizes is non-linear, and so is the output.
• Also, the flux density within the air gaps is easily affected
by external fields.
 RTD (Resistance
temperature detector)
Varying resistance with
temperature
Good for measurement

of small
temperature
differences

General equation for

RTD material
Rt = Ro(1 + At + Bt2 + Ct 3
 RTDs:
Characteristics and Applications

Characferisfics: -
e Resistive device, linear
e Large range: -200 to +850oC for
Platinum e High accuracy: +0.001OC
e Low sensitivity: 0.39 % per oC
e Don't need reference temperature
Applications:
elndustries and laboratories where
high accuracy of temperature
measurements are required.
 Requirements for RTD
material
High temperature coefficient
High resistivity to ensure small
wire
length
Linearity of relation between
resistance and temperature
Suñicient mechanical strength
Stability of electrical
characteristics
 Construction
A thin Platinum wire wound in form
of a free spiral by an insulated
carrier such as mica or ceramic.
Diameter of wire should be 0.02mm to
0.2mm.
Wire should be smooth, free from
defects, ensurity of constancy of
resistance to avoid resistance
changes due to dimension
changes.
Wire generally enclosed in a
protective tube made of glass,
quartz etc.
Thin-Film RTDs

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 Calendar-Van Dusen Equation
For platinum, the resistance
temperature relationship is given
by the following equation:

7b = A {1+a[T — 6(0.017— 1)(0.01T) —,#(0.01T—1)

(0.01T)O3])

where e, Q, and h are constants,

dependent on the purity of platinum. h=
1.49, and Q=0 for T>0 and Q=0.11 for T<0.
(U.S. calibration cure
For the U. S. calibration curve, o = 0.003851/°C
 Platinum RTD: versus
(U.S. Calibration)
300

250

x20
o 0
15
0
.š!
10
0

5
00
- 0 100 30 40
100 200 0 0
Temperature
(C)
 Graph
for ifferen
materials t
CO
C

10
0 DOD ‹œ sœ aon
 RTD's small resistance change
requires
Bridge circuit:
c Can detect small resistance changes

“Supply R1 R2
"
Voltage
Vs

R RTD
 RTD Materials
Gold & Silver: Rarely used because of
low
resistivity
Tunqsten: Very high resistivity
Gold Silver allo : Give same charac
As Platinum below 1250 C.
Phos hor Bronze allo : Better
for low temperature measurement
Nickel: Most used, cheaper than
platinum Platinum: More suitable but
expensive, high
range, high precision
 RTD
Very
accurate
Very stable
Standardized among vendors
Large variety of packaging
options
 RTD Disadvantages
•Costly
•Require current source or voltage
•source
•Low resistance/small change
•4-wire measurement
•Slow
 Latest develo ment
:Miniature RT

Thick Film Omaga Film

Element

Glees saaled Bihar \

finding

Typical RTD Probas Thin Film Omoga TFD

El•mant
Strain Gauge
 Principle of Strain Gauge
• The strain gage is tightly bonded to a measuring object so that
the sensing element (metallic resistive foil) may elongate
(extend) or contract according to the strain (tension) borne by
the measuring object.
• When bearing mechanical elongation or contraction (reduction),
most metals undergo a change in electric resistance.
• The strain gage applies this principle to strain measurement
through the resistance change.
• Generally, the sensing element of the strain gage is made of a
copper-nickel alloy foil.
• The alloy foil has a rate of resistance change proportional to
strain with a certain constant.
 Strain gauge:
• it is an electrical conductor whose resistance
changes as it is strained.
• Structure of Strain Gauges Plastic film (base)
There are many types of strain gauges.
• Among them, a universal strain gage has a
structure such that a grid-shaped sensing
element of thin metallic resistive foil (3 to 6μm
thick) is put on a base of thin plastic film (15 to
16μm thick) and is laminated with a thin film.
• Let’s express the principle as follows:
• ΔR/R = K.ε
• where,
• R: Original resistance of strain gage, Ω (ohm)
• ΔR: Elongation- or contraction-initiated
resistance change, Ω (ohm)
• K: Proportional constant (called gage factor)
• ε: Strain
 Differential Output Transducers
• The Differential Output Transducer consists of
a coil which is divided into two parts, as
shown in below figure.
• Inductive transducers using self inductance as
a variable use one coil, while those using
mutual inductance as a variable use multiple
coils.
• Normally the change in self inductance, ΔL, for
inductive transducers, (working on the
principle of change of self inductance) is not
sufficient for detection of subsequent stages
of the instrumentation system.
• However, if successive stages of the instrument
respond to ΔL or ΔM, rather than L + ΔL, or M + ΔM,
the sensitivity and accuracy will be much higher.
• The transducers can be designed to provide two
outputs, one of which represents inductance (self
or mutual) and the other the decrease in
inductance (self or mutual).
• The succeeding stages of the instrumentation
system measure the difference between these
outputs. This is known as differential output.
 Advantages of Differential Output
Transducer
• Sensitivity and accuracy are increased.
• Output is less affected by external magnetic
fields.
• Effective variations due to temperature
changes are reduced.
• Effects of change in supply voltages and
frequency are reduced.
• In response to a physical signal (which is
normally displacement), the inductance of one
part increases from L to L + ΔL, while that of
the other part decreases from L to L — ΔL.
• The change is measured as the difference of
the two, resulting in an output of 2 ΔL instead
of ΔL, when one winding is used.
• This increases the sensitivity and also
eliminates error
• Figure given below shows an inductive
transducer giving a differential output.
• The output represents a change of self
inductance due to change of reluctance.
• (This inductive transducer also works on the
principle of change of self inductance of the two
coils with change in reluctance of the path of
the magnetic circuit. The target as well as cores
on which the coil is wound are made up of iron.)
THANK YOU

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