What is Computer network?

• A network consists of two or more computers that are linked in

order to share resources or allow electronic communications.

• Any device in network is called as node.

• Set of computers/nodes connected by communication links

• The computers on a network may be linked using Wires or

wireless technology.

• Wired connection includes cables, telephone lines etc.

• Wireless connection includes radio waves, satellites, or infrared

light beams.
 Need of computer network
• Internet access: We can easily access information all because of the internet which
provides a variety of information and communication facilities, using standardized
communication protocols.

• E-Commerce: also known as electronic commerce, refers to buying or selling product,

service through the internet. It has been one of the world most profitable business in the
world which is only possible of a computer network.

• Entertainment: It includes games, online video streaming and many other which is only
possible because of the computer network.

• VoIP: Through Voice over Internet protocol, telephone calls are made digitally using
Internet Protocols instead of the regular analog phone lines.
 Advantages of Computer Networks
• File Sharing: Networks offer a quick and easy way to share files
directly. Instead of using a disk or USB key to carry files from one
computer or office to another, you can share files directly using a
network.

• Security: Specific directories can be password protected to limit

access to authorized users.

• Resource Sharing: All computers in the network can share resources

such as printers, fax machines, modems, and scanners.

• Communication: Even outside of the internet, those on the network can

communicate with each other via electronic mail over the network system.
When connected to the internet, network users can communicate with people
around the world via the network.
• Flexible Access:
Networks allow their users to access files from computers throughout the
network. This means that a user can begin work on a project on one computer
and finish up on another. Multiple users can also collaborate on the same
project through the network

• Workgroup Computing: Workgroup software like Microsoft BackOffice

enables many users to contribute to a document concurrently. This allows for
interactive teamwork.

• Error reduction and improve consistency: One can reduce errors and
improve consistency by having all staff work from a single source of
information, so that standard versions of manuals and directories can be made
available, and data can be backed up from a single point on a scheduled basis,
ensuring consistency
 Computer Network Architecture
• Computer Network Architecture is defined as the physical and logical
design of the software, hardware, protocols, and media of the transmission
of data.

• Simply we can say that how computers are organized and how tasks are
allocated to the computer.

• The two types of network architectures are used:

1. Peer-To-Peer network
2. Client/Server network
 Peer-To-Peer network
• Peer-To-Peer network is a network in which all the computers are
linked together with equal privilege and responsibilities for
processing the data.
• Peer-To-Peer network is useful for small environments, usually up to
10 computers.
• Peer-To-Peer network has no dedicated server.
• Special permissions are assigned to each computer for sharing the
resources, but this can lead to a problem if the computer with the
resource is down.
 Client/Server Network
• Client/Server network is a network model designed for the end users called clients,
to access the resources such as songs, video, etc. from a central computer known as
Server.
• The central controller is known as a server while all other computers in the
network are called clients.
• A server performs all the major operations such as security and network
management.
• A server is responsible for managing all the resources such as files, directories,
printer, etc.
• All the clients communicate with each other through a server. For example, if
client1 wants to send some data to client 2, then it first sends the request to the
server for the permission. The server sends the response to the client 1 to initiate its
communication with the client 2.
 Server
• Network computer, computer program, or device that processes
requests from a client (see client-server architecture).
• On the World Wide Web, for example, a Web server is a
computer that uses the HTTP protocol to send Web pages to a
client’s computer when the client requests them.
• On a local area network, a print server manages one or more
printers, and prints files sent to it by client computers.
• Network servers (which manage network traffic) and file
servers (which store and retrieve files for clients) are two more
examples of servers.
 Types of Computer Network
• A computer network can be categorized by their size and their
geographical span/area.
• A computer network is mainly of four types
 (PAN)Personal Area Network
• A Personal Area Network (PAN) is smallest network which is very
personal to a user.
• Computer Network that is used for connecting the computer devices of
personal use is known as Personal Area Network.
• This may include Bluetooth enabled devices or infra-red enabled
devices.
• PAN has connectivity range up to 10 meters.
• PAN may include wireless computer keyboard and mouse, Bluetooth
enabled headphones, wireless printers, computer, mobile and TV
remotes.
 There are two types of Personal Area Network:

• Wireless Personal Area Network: Wireless Personal Area Network is developed

by simply using wireless technologies such as Wi Fi, Bluetooth. It is a low range
network.
• Wired Personal Area Network: Wired Personal Area Network is created by
using the USB.
LAN(Local Area Network)
 LAN(Local Area Network)
• Local Area Network is a group of computers connected to each other
in a small area such as building, office.
• LAN is used for connecting two or more personal computers through
a communication medium such as twisted pair, coaxial cable, etc.
• It is less costly as it is built with inexpensive hardware such as hubs,
network adapters, and Ethernet cables.
• The data is transferred at an extremely faster rate in Local Area
Network.
• It is a widely useful network for sharing resources like files, printers,
games, and other application.
• LAN has connectivity range up to 1 kilometers.
• Local Area Network provides higher security.
 Advantages of LAN
• Computer resources like hard-disks, DVD-ROM, and printers can
share local area networks.
• This significantly reduces the cost of hardware purchases.
• You can use the same software over the network instead of
purchasing the licensed software for each client in the network.
• Data of all network users can be stored on a single hard disk of the
server computer.
• You can easily transfer data and messages over networked
computers.
• It will be easy to manage data at only one place, which makes data
more secure.
• Local Area Network offers the facility to share a single internet
connection among all the LAN users.
• Adding new Computer/Workstation is easy.
 MAN(Metropolitan Area Network)
• MAN covers a bigger geographical area than LAN network E.g. cities
and districts.
• It can also be considered as a superior version of the LAN network.
• As LAN covers only a minor area of the network, MAN is designed to
connect a city or two villages together through it.
• The area covered by MAN is generally 5-50 km.
• It covers a larger area than a LAN but a smaller area than a WAN.
• These types of networks are used to transfer data at high speed
within a city. Under this, two or more local area networks are
connected.
• Government agencies use MAN to connect to the citizens and
private industries.
• In MAN, various LANs are connected to each other through a
telephone exchange line.
• This network connects all the prominent colleges, schools, and
government offices in the city. Thus, we can say that a MAN
network is made up of multiple LANs.
• The best example of a MAN is Cable TV. The cable TV is situated
in the middle of a city, and from there, its cable spreads throughout
the city, and the user uses the service through the cable network.
 MAN is used in communication between the banks in a city.
 It can be used in a college within a city.
 WAN(Wide Area Network)
• A Wide Area Network is a network that extends over a large
geographical area such as states or countries.
• WAN is widely used in long-distance communication systems.
• It covers bigger areas i.e. right from a state to a country, continent
or even a whole world.
• A Wide Area Network is not limited to a single location, but it
spans over a large geographical area through a telephone line, fiber
optic cable or satellite links.
• The internet is one of the biggest WAN in the world.
• A Wide Area Network is widely used in the field of Business,
government, and education.
• Therefore the geographical area it covers is from 100 to several
1000 km.
• WAN networks are complex in nature, however, they are widely
used in mobile communications as they cover up long distances.
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• WAN enables users to establish a connection over a large
geographical area. This is helpful for the organizations having
offices at a large distance. They can communicate with other
offices easily.
• The data is organized in a centralized manner. It helps users to
access or manage the data easily. This is helpful when using
emails, files, or backup servers. Users don't have to pay for
these resources for each office or branch separately.
• Remote data entry is possible in WAN. It means sitting at any
location you can enter data, update data and query other
information of any computer attached to the WAN but located
in other cities
 Applications of WAN
• Consider the case of an MNC where the head office is situated in
Delhi and the regional offices are situated in Bangalore and Mumbai.
Here, all are connected through a WAN network.
• The WAN networks are used for military services. The satellite mode
of transmission is used in this setup. Military operations require
highly secured network for communication.
• Railways reservation and Airlines use WAN networks. The client
nodes are situated all over the country and are connected to a
centralized server node and all are connected to one network. Thus
booking can be done from anywhere in the country.
• Mobile operators and service use WAN network to provide mobile services in
a particular circle. Different circles of a country are also connected with each
other through WAN networks
• WAN allows users to communicate over the instant messaging system.
Applications like Whatsapp, Telegram, and Skype, have made it easier for
people to connect with their friends or family.
• Using WAN, companies work on the live server. Thus, the developers and
programmers have instant access to the updated files within seconds. This
helps in increasing productivity.
• Due to a public network, people can organize their business over the Internet
globally.
 The WAN network can be of two types:

Wired WAN – This uses Optical Fiber Cable as the media for
communication

Wireless WAN – Satellite communication is a type of WAN network.

(CAN)Campus Area Network
 Campus Area Network
• The full form of CAN is ‘Campus Area Network‘ or ‘Controller Area
Network,’ but sometimes it is also known for ‘Cluster Area Network’ and
‘Corporate Area Network.’

• Multiple Local Area Network connects campus Area Network in a limited area
such as offices, schools, universities, business sectors (Intranet), etc.
• A campus area network is more extensive than a local area network (LAN)
because it covers multiple buildings under a specific area.

• Similarly, like LANs, it can be accessed by wired or wireless connections.

• Such a network is accessed by campus residents only, such as students and
faculty.
• A Campus Area Network is larger than Local Area Network but smaller than
Metropolitan Area Network (MAN) and Wide Area Network (WAN).
• Campus Area Network is network of interconnected Local Area Networks
where these LANs are connected via Switches and routers and create a single
network like CAN.
• It covers areas of around 1 to 5 km range and it can be both wired or wireless
connectivity.
 Proxy Server
• A proxy server is a dedicated computer or a software system or program that plays the role
of the intermediary between the user's computer and the Internet.
• Every computer that is connected to the network has an IP (Internet Protocol) address that
identifies the device uniquely. Similarly, the proxy server is a computer on the network that
has its own IP your computer knows.
• The word proxy means "to act on behalf of another," and a proxy server acts on behalf of the
user. proxy server allows us to access any websites with a different IP address.
• When you send a web request, your request goes to the proxy server first. The
proxy server then makes your web request on your behalf, collects the response
from the web server, and forwards you the web page data so you can see the page
in your browser

• Normally, when you type in a website name ([Link] or any other), your
Internet Service Provider (ISP) makes the request for you and connects you with
the destination—and reveals your real IP address, as mentioned before.
• While using a proxy, your Internet request goes from your computer to your ISP as
usual, but then gets sent to the proxy server, and then to the website/destination.
• The main purpose of a proxy is to change the IP address.A proxy server can
change your IP address, so the web server doesn’t know exactly where you are in
the world.
 How Proxy Server Works?
• When using a proxy server, client computers first connect to the proxy server and
request resources such as a web pages, games, videos, mp3, e-books, or anything
else that user needs from the internet .
• A proxy server has a cache memory. Whenever there is the first request for any
web resource from the user then the proxy server will pass the request to the
main server and receive the response from the main server. Once the response is
received, the proxy server will store the response in his cache memory as well as
sends the response back to the user which is shown below.
• As soon as the request is received by the proxy server, it tries to search the
information from its cache or hard disk, if the resources are found in cached, then
it returns them to the client computers.
• If not, then connect to the relevant servers. By placing the requests of resources
on the behalf of client computers. After that, the request resources are taken from
the remote server and then cache it and returns the resources.
 Types of Proxy Server
1. Transparent proxy. It tells websites that it is a proxy server and it
will pass along your IP address anyway.

2. Anonymous proxy. It will identify itself as a proxy, but it won’t

pass your IP address to the website.

3. Distorting proxy. It passes along an incorrect IP address for you,

while identifying itself as a proxy
 Advantages of Proxy Server
• It improves the security and enhances the privacy of the
user.
• It hides the identity (IP address) of the user.
• It controls the traffic and prevents crashes.
• Also, saves bandwidth by caching files and compressing
incoming traffic.
• Protect our network from malware.
• Allows access to the restricted content.
 DHCP Server
• A is DHCP Server is a network server that automatically provides and assigns IP
addresses, default gateways and other network parameters to client devices.
• DHCP (Dynamic Host Configuration Protocol) is a network protocol used for
assigning an IP address to network clients dynamically from pre-defined IP pool.
• The server maintains a IP address pool and it offer some IP which is not already
allotted to some other client. When client disconnects from server its IP then
becomes free again and can be given to other clients
• It relies on the standard protocol known as Dynamic Host
Configuration Protocol or DHCP to respond to broadcast queries
by clients.
• A DHCP server automatically sends the required network
parameters for clients to properly communicate on the network.
• Without it, the network administrator has to manually set up
every client that joins the network, which can be complicated,
especially in large networks.
• DHCP servers usually assign each client with a unique dynamic
IP address.
• When your home router connects to the internet, your Internet
Service Provider (ISP) assigns an IP address to your router. This
is the only device in your house that receives an IP address
directly from your ISP. It’s also what’s known as your “
public IP address”.
 The 4 STEPS DORA Process
• The process of the DHCP server assigning IP address and other
network configuration parameters to the network device happens
in four steps:
1. Discover DHCP server(DHCP discover message )
• This is a first message generated in the communication
process between server and client.
• This message is generated by Client host in order to
discover if there is any DHCP server/servers are present in a
network or not.
• This message is broadcasted to all devices present in a
network to find the DHCP server.
• source IP address is [Link](because PC has no IP address
till now) and destination IP address is [Link]
[Link] offer message –
• When Server Receives the Discover Request then it responds with
the DHCP Offer request to the client.
• This contains the information related to IP Address that and the lease
duration that a host can use.

[Link] Request -
• The host receives the Offer packet then it replies back with a
Request message.
• This message tells the server that it's ready to accept the IP Address
that the server Offered. Please allocate this IP address to me

[Link] Acknowledge -
• The server gets the request from the host.
• This message is a reply to the request message to the host.
• It will send the DHCP Acknowledge request to the host along with.
Which will contains the IP Address and the Subnet mask that the
Server allowed for the host
 DHCP lease, renew, expiry
• Since DHCP enables dynamic IP address allocation, the address allocated to a DHCP client
device is not fixed. The DHCP server does not permanently allocate an IP address to a device,
but provides it for a particular time period.

• DHCP Lease

o The DHCP lease time represents the period of time between when your computer or
device obtained its IP address from the router and the time when it expires.
o When the DHCP lease time expires, your computer or device automatically releases its
IP address and asks the router to give it a new one.
o This DHCP-assigned IP address is not permanent and expires in about 24 hours. This is
called DHCP lease time.
o When a client requests the DHCP server for an IP address, the DHCP server provides the
IP address and network configuration parameters such as the subnet mask and the default
gateways for a particular time period – called a lease.
o The period for which the client is allocated the IP address is called the lease period.
o The client can use all the allocated network parameters within this period, and is
uniquely identified in the network using the allocated IP address.
• Lease Renewal

o During or at the end of the lease period, if the client wishes to continue using the
same network parameters, including the IP address, a lease renewal through the
DHCP server can be requested.

o The DHCP server, on receiving this message, renews the lease period of the client,
and the client can continue using the IP address for an extended period.

• Lease expiry

o At the end of the lease period, if a client has not requested a renewal, or if the server
has not received a renewal request, the lease of the allocated IP expires.

o This causes the DHCP to reclaim the IP and related network configurations, and add it
back to its pool of IP addresses.

o The release and renew of an IP address is triggered at the device itself, and the
network management device (the router or the ISP) automatically assigns a new one.
 Network Topology
• In Computer Network how the computers are connected to each other is known as
topology.
• Network topology is the layout of a network.
• It consists of two parts; physical and logical.
• The physical part describes the physical layout (the way in which the computers or
nodes are connected with each other in a computer network.) of a network while
the logical part describes how the data flows(way in which the devices
communicate internally) in that network.
• Both, physical and logical parts are also known as the physical topology and the
logical topology.
Physical part (topology) + Logical part (topology) = Network topology
Types of network topology
Star Topology
 Star Topology
• In this topology, all computers connect to a centralized networking device.
• In a star topology, every node on the network is connected through a central device,
such as a hub, router, or switch.
• Usually, a networking switch or a Hub (in earlier days) is used as the centralized
device.
• Each computer in the network uses its own separate twisted pair cable to connect to
the switch.
• Twisted pair cable uses RJ-45 connectors on both ends.
• In star topology each device in the network is connected to a central device called
hub. Unlike Mesh topology, star topology doesn’t allow direct communication
between devices, a device must have to communicate through hub/Switch.
• If one device wants to send data to other device, it has to first send the data to hub
and then the hub transmit that data to the designated device.
• Star topology is an arrangement of the network in which every node is connected to
the central hub, switch or a central computer.
• The central computer is known as a server, and the peripheral devices attached to the
server are known as clients.
• Coaxial cable or RJ-45 cables are used to connect the computers.
• Star topology is the most popular topology in network implementation.
 Advantages of Star Topology

• Failure of one node does not affect the network

• Troubleshooting is easy
• It is easy to install.
• Relocating of computers is easier than other topologies
• It provides higher data transfer speed.

Disadvantages of Star Topology

• Long cables may be required to connect each node to the Central Device/server
• Failure of central node brings down the whole network/If the centralized device
fails, it brings the entire network down
• Too many cables make the network messy.
• It uses more cables than other topologies.
 BUS Topology
• Bus topology is a topology for a Local Area Network (LAN) in which all the nodes are
connected to a single cable.
• The cable to which the nodes connect is called a "backbone".
 BUS Topology
• All the different nodes in the network connects at different points on
the main cable.
• long cable works as backbone of the network.
• A connection point in the main cable for a node or device is the nearest
point for the node.
• In a bus topology, only one host can transmit data at a time only when
the bus is free.
• A bus is usually referred to a cable that connects end to end and this is
used to transmit the signals from one end to the other end.
• At every end a terminator is placed so that it understands in which
direction the data is traveling and also the terminator is used to absorb
the signals. If the terminator does not absorb the signal then the same
signal is reflected back to the bus confusing the whole data flow.
 How does the BUS topology works
• The data is sent only in one direction and as soon as it reaches the end, the
terminator removes the data from the communication line
• This allows only one device to transmit at a time.
• When a computer transmits data in this topology, all computers see that data over
the wire, but only that computer accepts the data to which it is addressed
• For example, if in the below network, PC-A sends data to the PC-C then all
computers of the network receive this data but only the PC-C accepts it.
• If PC-C replies, only the PC-A accepts the return data.
 Advantages of Bus topology:

[Link] to use and install.

[Link] a node fails, it will not affect other nodes.
[Link] cabling is required.
[Link]-efficient to implement.

Disadvantages of Bus topology:

5. If the bus fails, the network will fail.

6. A limited number of nodes can connect to the bus due to limited bus length.
7. Security issues and risks are more as messages are broadcasted to all nodes.
8. Congestion and traffic on the bus as it is the only source of communication.
 Ring Topology
• In this topology, all computers connect in a circle.
• Each computer is connected to exactly two other computers in a network to form
the ring.
• Data moves down a one-way path from one computer to another/message passing is
unidirectional and circular in nature.

.
• If there is damaged cable or breakdown in any one of the nodes then the entire
network stops functioning.
• Data is transmitted by the sending node to the destination node through tokens and
hence this topology is also known as Token Ring Topology.
• Data travels from node to node.
• Information flows in a sequential manner, it can be either in clockwise direction or
anticlockwise direction.
• In-ring topology data is passed from one device to the next device and so on until
the data reaches the destination.
• This is so because in direct connection of the devices with each other, each device
sends or receive data from the device present adjacent to it.
• A token is used as a Carrier. The “token” is a specific data frame constantly moving
around the network.
• A token is regularly passed from one node to another. And if a node has some
information to pass on the network, the node releases the information.
• If the node does not have any data to release on the network, then it transfers the
token to the next node.
• The nodes with token are the ones only allowed to send data. Other nodes have to
wait for an empty token to reach them.
 Ring Topology Classification
Unidirectional Ring:
In a unidirectional ring network,
the data flows in only one direction
either clockwise or anti-clockwise and
such a network is called a half-duplex
network. In general, most of the ring
network allows this kind of data flow
only.

Bidirectional Ring:
Unidirectional ring network can
be converted into a bidirectional
network by having two connections
between two network nodes. It is
also called a dual-ring network in
which two rings are created to send
data in the opposite direction
 How does the Ring topology works
• Sender will request for Token assignment for initiating communication.
• If Token is available then it will be assigned to Sender, otherwise Sender has to
wait for Token to become available. Suppose Token is free and assigned
to Sender.
• Sender will now have the charge of the whole Ring Network. Sender will attach
the Receiver address with the data message and send it.
• The message will travel in anti-clockwise direction. Hence, it will pass through
the computers numbered 2, 3 and 4.
• Each of these computers will receive the data message and check the destination
address. For instance, Computer-2 will receive the data message first and check
the destination address.
• If the current computer address and destination address are not same then the
computer forwards the data message to the next computer. For instance,
again, Computer-2 will check the destination address. Destination address
is Computer-5. So, the addresses don`t match and Computer-2 will forward the
message to Computer-3. Same process will be repeated at each computer.
• If the current computer address matches the destination address then the
computer will keep the data and release the Token. For example, at Computer-5,
both current address and destination address are the same. So, Computer-5 will
keep the data and release the Token.
 Advantages of Ring topology:
[Link] Installation.
[Link] Cabling Required.
[Link] chances of data collision(unidirectional).
[Link] to troubleshoot(the faulty node does not pass the token).
[Link] node gets the same access time.
[Link] not require a central node to manage the connectivity
between the computers

Disadvantages of Ring topology:

[Link] a node fails, the whole network will fail.
[Link] data transmission speed(each message has to go through
the ring path).
[Link] to reconfigure(we have to break the ring).
[Link] is too expensive.
 Tree Topology
• A tree topology is a combination of a star network topology and a bus topology.
• It connects multiple star topology with the help of a linear bus backbone cable.
• A network structure which requires a root node, intermediate parents node, and
leaf nodes (just like we see in an n-tree) .
• The several star topologies are connected to a single bus. The nodes in the star
topology are linked to a central hub that will be controlling the traffic to the
network.
• The main structure of tree is in the form of a bus Backbone Cable. Each branch
contains Star Network. So, the main bus connects to one or ore Switches or Buses.
• Each Switch or Bus further connects to one or more Network Nodes and Network
Devices.
 Working Model of Tree Topology
• The tree will be having different branches associated with it similarly, the tree
topology is having hubs within it. These hubs are connected serially. As in bus
topology, all the nodes are connected to a longer cable.
• A node that wants to send the data to the destination node then the sender node
simply will be placing the data on the bus which carries it along with it to the
destination node.
• And when coming to a star topology, all the nodes are connected to a central node in
a structure. Where that central type of node is called a hub.
• If there is a node that wants to transfer some type of data to some other node on the
network then, the source node will be transferring the data to the hub first which in
turn sends it back to the destination node. So the hub will be playing a very
important role in a network.
• The tree topology has three types of layers in that.
• The lowermost layer is the access layer where the computers are attached.
• The middle layer is a distributed layer that works as an intermediate between the
upper layer and the lower layer.
• And the upper layer is the core layer. Which is the central point of the network that
is the root of the tree from which all the nodes are acquired.
Advantages of tree topology:
• Easy to Expand
• A point to point wiring to the central hub at each intermediate node
of a tree topology represents a node in the bus topology
• Other hierarchical networks are not affected if one of them gets
damaged
• Easier maintenance and fault finding

Disadvantages of tree topology:

• Huge cabling is needed
• A lot of maintenance is needed
• Fault in the backbone affects the entire network. Because backbone
cable is the only medium to communicate between different star
topology.
 Mesh Topology
• Mesh topology is a computer network topology in which nodes are
interconnected with each other. In other words, direct
communication takes place between the nodes in the network.
• Each node is capable of sending messages to and receiving messages
from other nodes.
• The devices in a network connected to all the other Devices in a
network. The Devices also be known as nodes or Hosts in a network.
• This Nodes or devices send data to the other nodes within the range.
• The data moves from one node to the other node until it reaches its
destination device.
• There are multiple paths from one computer to another computer.
• There are dedicated/Point-to-point links between each pair
of Network Devices.
• If N number of devices are connected with each other in a mesh
topology, then a total number of dedicated links required to connect
them is N(N-1)/2.
• If there are 5 devices connected to each other, then the total number of
links required is 5*4/2 = 10.
 Mesh Topology can be divided into two types

1) Fully Connected Mesh Topology:

In a full mesh topology, each computer is connected to
every other computer/all the computers available in the network.

2) Partially connected mesh topology

In a partial mesh topology, not all but certain computers are
connected to those computers with which they communicate
frequently. all the nodes are not necessary to be connected with
each other in a network.
 Working of Mesh Topology
In this type of network topology uses one of the following approach for
working:
[Link]
[Link]
Routing Mechanism in Mesh Topology
• In this working mechanism, each node maintains a Routing Table.
• A Routing Table contains the addresses of the destinations and
possible linking paths.
• whenever Sender wants to send the data to Receiver, it combines the
data message with the destination address.
• Before sending, Sender has to determine the path to take for
transmitting data.
• Every time a device wants to send information, it first looks for the
communication link to receiver using routing table.
• Each of the five computers will create a separate Routing Table.
This Routing Table will contain the information about links to other
attached Network Nodes.
• In above fig. we can clearly see the labeled links between each pair of nodes.
• For each computer, separate Routing Table is created.
• For instance, computer-4 will use the following Routing Table for
communicating data with other Nodes in Computer Network.
• Suppose computer-4 wants to send data message to computer-2.
Computer-4 will create a package containing data and the receiver
address.
• In this case receiver address is computer-2.
• Now when computer-4 wants to send data, it will first look for
linking path before starting data transmission. For this it will refer to
the Routing Table.
• According to the Routing Table, there is a unique linking path
between computer-2 and computer-4 and that is Path-I. So,
computer-4 will use this dedicated path for communicating with
computer-2.
Flooding Mechanism in Mesh Topology
• sender to broadcast the message to all the nodes.
• Node having the same address as address given in the message keeps
data. Otherwise, node discards the data message.
• In this mechanism, there is no need for making or
maintaining Routing Table.
• Computer that wishes to send data message to another computer
encapsulates the receiver address and data message in a packet or
package.
• After this it broadcasts the package to all the nodes or network
devices attached to it.
• Each network device receives the package and checks the destination
address/receiver address.
• If its own address and receiver address matches then it keeps the data.
Otherwise it simply discards the data.
Example:
• Again consider that computer-4 wants to communicate a data message with
computer-2. this scenario, there will be no routing table available.
• So, computer-4 will combine the receiver address with the data message and
create a package. Computer-4 will now broadcast the package.
• The package will be received at computer-2, computer-3, computer-1 and
computer-5. In other words, all the computers having connections with
computer-4 will receive the message.
• On receiving the message, each computer will check the destination address.
Computer-1, computer-3 and computer-5 will discard the data message as
their addresses are different from the receiver address.
• However, computer-2 will keep the package because it has same address as
the destination address.
Advantages of Mesh topology:

• Reliable: The mesh topology networks are very reliable as if any

link breakdown will not affect the communication between
connected computers.
• Fast Communication: Communication is very fast between the
nodes.
• Failure during a single device won’t break the network.
• There is no traffic problem as there is a dedicated point to point links
for every computer.
• Data can be transmitted from different devices simultaneously. This
topology can with stand high traffic.
• Even if one of the components fails there is always an alternative
present. So data transfer doesn't get affected
Disadvantages of Mesh topology
• Cost: A mesh topology contains a large number of connected devices
such as a router and more transmission media than other topologies.

• Management: Mesh topology networks are very large and very

difficult to maintain and manage. If the network is not monitored
carefully, then the communication link failure goes undetected.

• Installation is extremely difficult in the mesh.

• Power requirement is higher as all the nodes will need to remain

active all the time and share the load.
 Hybrid Topology
• Hybrid topology is a combination of two or more than two topologies.
• In computer networking, a network structure that is a mixture of two
or more topologies is known as hybrid topology.
Advantages of Hybrid Topology :

• Can be modified as per requirement.

• It is very reliable.
• Handles large volume of traffic.

Disadvantages of Hybrid Topology :

• It is a type of network expensive.
• Design of a hybrid network is very complex.
• You can combine any topology with another topology.

 Application and Uses of Hybrid Topology

• Automation organizations
• Banks sector
• Multi-National companies
• Educational campus
• Research Organizations
 Computer Network Components
• Computer network components are the major parts which are needed
to install the software.
• Depending on the type of network that we need to install or remove
some network components. For example, the wireless network does
not require a cable
• A computer network is build up from several components. These
components together makes it possible to transfer data from one
device to another and makes smooth communication between two
different devices.
 Router
• A router is a hardware networking device which is used to connect a
LAN with an internet connection./It’s the device that connects a
computer to the Internet.
• A router is nothing but a networking device that allows you to
distribute the internet connection from your modem to all other
required devices.
• You can connect all your devices such as a computer, laptop, phone,
etc. with your internet and access all at the same time. With the help
of a router, you can simply connect and communicate with one
another over the same network.
• A router works in a Layer 3 (Network layer)
of the OSI Reference model.
• A router forwards the packet based on the information available in the
routing table.
• The purpose of the router is to take the information from the modem
and deliver it to your computer. A router is a small device that sits
between your modem and computer.
• It is a Gateway of a Network that join multiple wired or wireless
networks together.
• A router is also a networking device that sends the data from one
network to another network with the help of their IP addresses.
• A router is capable of connecting the LAN and WAN.
• A router transfers the data in the form of packets.
• It sends data based on the IP address of a device.
• The router has several ports to connect the devices.
• The router uses a routing table to send the data.
 Types of Routers
Wireless routers.
• A wireless router connects directly to a modem by a cable. This
allows it to receive information from — and transmit information to
— the internet.
• The router then creates and communicates with your home Wi-Fi
network using built-in antennas. As a result, all of the devices on your
home network have internet access.

Wired routers.
• A wired router connects directly to computers through wired
connections.
• They usually have a port that connects to the modem to communicate
with the internet. Another port — or ports — allows the wired router
to connect to computers and other devices to distribute information.
 MODEM
• Modem, short for modulator-demodulator
• It is a hardware network device that helps your computer and other
devices to connect with the internet.
• A modem is a hardware device that allows a computer to send and
receive information over telephone lines.
• A modem is a small box that connects your devices to the Internet
using cables.
• Unlike a router, a modem doesn’t provide your home with Wi-Fi
connectivity.
• A modem acts as a digital translator.
• When sending a signal, the device converts
("modulates") digital data to an analog audio
signal, and transmits it over a telephone line.
• Similarly, when an analog signal is received, the
modem converts it back ("demodulates" it) to a
digital signal.
• We have telephone lines that are partly analog and a lot of computer
tech. (e.g., laptops, desktops etc.) that is purely digital hence the
modem is required.
• The modem performs the modulation and demodulation function in
between your networking devices such as a computer or router and
the telephone line.
• The main purpose of using a modem is that it connects the networking
system or device to the Internet service provider (ISP) and we can get
access to the Internet only by using a modem.
• The connection between the modem and the networking device is
done by using RJ45 cable and between the modem and telephone line
is by using RJ11 cable.
• The modem does not form any type of LAN
• A modem does not come with any wireless module. It is thus very
difficult for you to connect to wireless devices with just a modem.
• If you want to use the Internet on only one device, then a regular
modem should sufficient.
• The modem will bring Internet to your house and the router will let
multiple devices connect to it.
• Modern routers combine the features of both a regular modem and a
router, which means that you don’t need to have two separate devices.
 How does a modem work?
• A modem has two plugs in it, one that connects it to the telephone
line (or the cable provided by your Internet service provider) and the
other connecting it to your computer (or a WiFi router).
• Basically, what the modem does is take the digital signal from the
computer and add it on top of an analog telephone signal (i.e.,
modulates it) so that it can be transferred through the telephone line.
• Since your modem sends information through a telephone line by
modulating digital signals, it also needs to have another kind of
translator that helps it demodulate the analog signals it receives via
the telephone line.
 Types of Modem

• Dial-up Modem: Dial-up modems transmits analog signal via

telephone lines. This modem is uses mostly to make connection with
ISP using of analog signals. Dial-up modem has two variant like as
external or internal modem.

• Cable Modem: In the cable modem, to use the coaxial cables those are
connected to the back edge of modem.

• ADSL Modem: ADSL stands for “Asymmetric Digital Subscriber

Line” and these types of modems uses the telephone line for sending
and receiving all information.
• DSL Modem: DSL stands for “Digital Subscriber Line“, and it is
also known as “Broadband Modem“. DSL modems offer broadband
services for using of different types of internet connections.

• External Modem: External modem likes as standalone modem

because it doesn’t integrate any router. This modem is connected with
the computer through USB stick, WIFI or Ethernet cable.
• .
• Router/Modem Combo: This type of modem is contained with router
that allows several devices and computers to attach within single
network. So, users do not require a extra router and modem.

• ISDN Modem: ISDN stands for “Integrated Services Digital

Network“, and it provides to make communication standards for
using of digital transmission of voice, video data over wire or optical
fiber.
 SWITCH
• A switch is a network device that allows other devices on the network
to communicate and share information.
• In other words, a switch ties the various devices such as PCs,
printers, servers, etc. together into your network.
• Switch is a small hardware device that joins multiple computers
together within one Local Area Network.
• Technically, network switches operate at layer two (Data Link Layer)
of the OSI Model.
• Switches can have anywhere from 5-port to 52-port configurations.
 Types of Switch
• UNMANAGED SWITCH
An unmanaged switch is the simplest and most basic kind of switch. It’s
simple because you can use it out of the box as it doesn’t need any
configuration. Unmanaged switches are less expensive but lack advanced
features. They are best for small offices that have simple networks.

• MANAGED SWITCH
A managed switch gives you control over the operation of the switch.
You can configure your switch to decide how your network consumes an
internet connection. You can configure the switch via a CLI (command
line interface), SNMP (Simple Network Management Protocol), or a web
interface.
Working of Switch
 What is MAC Address
• In order to communicate or transfer the data from one computer to
another computer we need some address.
• In Computer Network various types of address are introduced; each
works at different layer.
• Media Access Control Address is a physical address which works at
Data Link Layer.
• Media Access Control (MAC) Address –
 MAC Addresses are unique 48-bits hardware number of a
computer, which is embedded into network card (known
as Network Interface Card) during the time of manufacturing.
 MAC Address is also known as Physical Address of a network
device
 NIC(Network Interface Card)
• NIC is a hardware component used to connect a computer with
another computer onto a network
• A network interface card (NIC) is a hardware component without
which a computer cannot be connected over a network.
• The MAC address or physical address is encoded on the network card
chip which is assigned by the IEEE to identify a network card
uniquely.
• It is also called as a network interface controller, network adaptor or
LAN adaptor.
• Any device which wants to connect to the network must contain a
NIC card, even switch and routers also consist network interface card
(NIC) in order
to connect the network.
 Types of NIC

• Wired NIC: The Wired NIC is present inside the motherboard.

Cables and connectors are used with wired NIC to transfer data.

• Wireless NIC: The wireless NIC contains the antenna to obtain the
connection over the wireless network. For example, laptop computer
contains the wireless NIC.
 HUB
• Hub is a networking device that allows you to connect multiple PCs
to a single network.
• It is used to connect segments of a LAN.
• A hub stores various ports, so when a packet arrives at one port, it is
copied to various other ports.
• Hub works as a common connection point for devices in a network.
• Network hub is a device that allows multiple computers to
communicate with each other over a network.
• It operates on layer-1 of OSI Model i.e. physical layer.
• It has several Ethernet ports that are used to connect two or
more network devices together.
• Hub is a network device which
is used to connect multiple
devices together to form
a network.
 Working of Hub
• Any request that comes from a client computer first received by Hub
and then hub transmit this request over a network so that the correct
server receives and respond to it.
• Hubs are similar to switches, but are not as "smart." While switches
send incoming data to a specific port, hubs broadcast all incoming
data to all active ports.
 Types of Hub
• Hub can either be Active or Passive.

Passive Hub: It forwards data signals in the same format in which it

receives them. It does not change the data signal in any manner.

Active Hub: - It also works same as the passive Hub works. But before
forwarding the data signals, it amplifies them. To amplify something
means to increase its strength. Active Hub has electronic circuitry to
regenerate weak signals. Due to this added feature, the active Hub is also
known as the repeater.
 Repeater
• A communications device that amplifies (analog) or regenerates
(digital) the data signal in order to extend the transmission distance.
• It receives a signal on a specific frequency, then amplifies and
rebroadcasts it.
• By amplifying the signal, a repeater increases the transmission range
of the original signal.
• Repeaters are used extensively in long distance transmission.
• Repeater is a powerful network device which is used to regenerate the
signals, when they travel over a longer distance, so that the strength of
the signal remains the same.
• A repeater works on
the first layer of the
OSI layer that is
physical layer.
• A repeater is a network device that retransmits a received signal with
more power.
• Repeaters have many applications, but in computing they are most
commonly used in wireless networks.
• A repeater is a network device, which regenerates the Wi-Fi signal
over the same network. It receives weak or corrupt Wi-Fi signals and
regenerates it to the original strength.
• For example, a Wi-Fi network in a large home may benefit from using
one or more repeaters to relay the signal to different areas of the house.
• They do not read the data frames at all
• A Hub is just a repeater with multiple
ports.
 Network Bridge
• Bridges are networking devices that connect networks. Sometimes it
is necessary to divide networks into subnets to reduce the amount of
traffic on each larger subnet or for security reasons.
• It is a device that divides a network into segments..
• A bridge works at the Data link layer (Layer 2) of the OSI model.
• A bridge is a network device that connects multiple LANs (local area
networks) together to form a larger LAN.
• Bridge has only two ports.
 Working of Bridge
• The bridges use the MAC addresses to build a bridging table of
MAC addresses and port locations for hosts connected to the bridge
ports.
• A bridge functions by blocking or forwarding data, based on the
destination MAC address written into each frame of data. If the
address is in list ,the Bridge look up the port number and forwards the
packet to the port where it thinks the recipient is [Link] the
address is not is not in the list, the data is blocked from passing.
• Bridging Table

MAC Address Port

00-40-96-25-85-BB 1
00-40-96-25-8E-BC 1
00-60-97-61-78-5B 2
00-C0-4F-27-20-C7 2
 Types of Bridge
• TRANSPARENT BRIDGE
It is Invisible to the other devices on the network.
Transparent bridge maintains a list of MAC addresses and appears
transparently for other network devices on the network. It only blocks
or forwards the data as per the MAC address. Transparent bridges
also save and maintain the source-route addresses of incoming frames
by listening to all the connected bridges and hosts

• SOURCE ROUTE BRIDGE

Source route bridge uses the path which the packet takes through the
network is implanted within the packet.

• TRANSLATIONAL BRIDGE
It converts the data format of one networking to another.
 Gateways
• Gateway is a device which is used to connect multiple networks and
passes packets from one network to the other network.
• It allows the computer programs, either on the same computer or on
different computers to share information across the network through
protocols. A router is also a gateway, since it interprets data from one
network protocol to another.
• Gateways usually work at the Transport layer and Session layer of the
OSI model.
• Gateways are generally more complex than switch or router.
• Gateway is a networking device that connects two networks using
different protocols together.
• It also acts as a “gate” between two networks. It may be a router,
firewall, server, or other devices that enable traffic to flow in and out
of the network.
• The gateways are used to connect two networks that do not
communicate with the same network protocol, so it is necessary to
translate these protocols between both networks.
A router is a common type of gateway used in
home networks. It allows computers within the
local network to send and receive data over
the Internet. A firewall is a more advanced
type of gateway, which filters inbound and
outbound traffic, disallowing incoming data
from suspicious or unauthorized sources. A
proxy server is another type of gateway that
uses a combination of hardware and software
to filter traffic between two networks. For
example, a proxy server may only allow local
computers to access a list of authorized
websites.
A gateway, which is also called a combo modem and router, combines
the functionality of a modem and a router on the same box.
A
Hub:
n IPv4 address consists of four numbers, each
of which contains one to three digits, with a
single dot (.) separating each number or set of
digits. Each of the four numbers can range
from 0 to 255.