SIGNALS & SYSTEMS
ECC 205
III SEMESTER
UNIT-I
Introduction to Signals
⚫ A Signal is that carries some information to
represent a physical phenomenon.
⚫ A continuous-time signal, also called an
analog signal, is defined along a continum of
time.
Example of continuous time signal over 0 to
infinity time duration
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Example of discrete-time signal is defined at discrete times.
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Classification of Signals
• Periodic & A periodic Signals
• Even & Odd Signals
• Energy & Power Signals
• Deterministic & Non-Deterministic
Signals
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Periodic and Non-periodic Signals
• Given x(t) is a continuous-time signal
• x (t) is periodic iff x(t) = x(t+Tₒ) for any T and any integer n
• Example
– x(t) = A cos(ωt)
– x(t+Tₒ) = A cos[ω(t+Tₒ)] = A cos(ωt+ωTₒ)= A
cos(ωt+2π) = A cos(ωt)
– Note: Tₒ =1/fₒ ; ω=2πfₒ
Non-periodic signals
x(t) ≠ x(t+Tₒ)
• A non-periodic signal is assumed to have a period T = ∞
• Example of non periodic signal is an exponential signal
Important Condition of
Periodicity for Discrete Time Signals
• A discrete time signal is periodic if
x(n) = x(n+N)
• For satisfying the above condition the frequency
of the discrete time signal should be ratio of two
integers
i.e. fₒ = k/N
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Examples on Periodic Signals
Continued…
Sum of periodic Signals
• X(t) = X1(t) + X2(t)
• X(t+T) = X1(t+m1T1) + X2(t+m2T2)
• m1T1=m2T2 = Tₒ = Fundamental period
• Example: cos(pi/3)t+sin(pi/4)t
– T1=(2pi)/(pi/3)=6; T2 =(2pi)/(pi/4)=8;
– T1/T2=6/8 = ¾ = (rational number) = m2/m1
– m1T1=m2T2 🡪 Find m1 and m2🡪
– 6.4 = 3.8 = 24 = Tₒ
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Continued…
Sum of periodic Signals – may not always be periodic!
T1=(2pi)/(1)= 2pi; T2
=(2pi)/√2;
T1/T2= √2;
– Note: T1/T2 = √2 is an
irrational number
– X(t) is aperiodic
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Even and Odd Signals
Even Functions Odd Functions
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Discrete Time Even and Odd
Signals
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Energy and Power Signals
Energy Signal
• A signal with finite energy and zero power is called Energy Signal [Link] energy
signal
0<E<∞ and P =0
• Signal energy of a signal is defined as the area under the square of the magnitude
of the signal.
• The units of signal energy depends on the unit of the signal.
Power Signal
• Some signals have infinite signal energy and finite power. In that case it is more
convenient to deal with average signal power.
• For power signals
0<P<∞ and E = ∞
• Average power of the signal is given by
T is any period of the signal.
Periodic signals are generally power signals.
Signal Energy and Power for DT Signal
•A discrtet time signal with finite energy and zero power is called Energy
Signal [Link] energy signal
0<E<∞ and P =0
The signal energy of a for a discrete time signal x[n] is
The average signal power of a discrete time
power signal
x[n] is
For a periodic signal x[n] the average
signal power is
Deterministic & Non Deterministic
Signals
Non Deterministic or Random signals
• Behavior of these signals is random i.e. not predictable w.r.t
time.
• These signals can’t be expressed mathematically.
• For example Thermal Noise generated is non deterministic
signal.
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Elementary Signals
Sinusoidal & Exponential Signals
Sinusoidal Signals can expressed in either of two ways :
x(t) = A sin (2Пfot+ θ)
= A sin (ωot+ θ)
frequency form- A sin 2Пfot = A sin(2П/To)t
radian frequency form- A sin ωot
ωo = 2Пfo = 2П/To
To = Time Period of the Sinusoidal Wave
Real Exponential
x(t) = Aeat
= Aejω̥t = A[cos (ωot) +j sin (ωot)] Complex Exponential
θ = Phase of sinusoidal wave
A = amplitude of a sinusoidal or exponential signal
fo = fundamental frequency of sinusoidal signal
ωo = radian frequency
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Singular Functions
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Unit Step Function
Precise Graph Commonly-Used Graph
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Signum Function
Precise Graph Commonly-Used Graph
The signum function, is closely related to the unit-step
function.
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o
f
Unit Ramp Function E
l
e
c
t
r
o
n
i
c
s
a
n
d
•The unit ramp function is the integral of the unit step C
o
function. m
m
•It is called the unit ramp function because for positive t, its u
slope is one amplitude unit per time. n
i
Rectangular Pulse or Gate Function
Rectangular
pulse,
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Unit Impulse Function
Functions that approach unit step and unit
impulse
So unit impulse function is the derivative of the unit step
function or
unit step is the integral of the unit impulse function
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Representation of Impulse Function
The area under an impulse( is one) is called its strength or weight.
It is represented graphically by a vertical arrow.
An impulse with a strength of one is called a unit impulse.
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Properties of the Impulse Function
The Sampling Property
The Scaling Property
The Replication Property
g(t)⊗ δ(t) = g (t)
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Unit Impulse Train
The unit impulse train is a sum of infinitely uniformly-
spaced impulses and is given by
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The Unit Rectangle Function
The unit rectangle or gate signal can be represented as combination of
two shifted unit step signals as shown
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The Unit Triangle Function
A triangular pulse whose height and area are both one but its base
width is not, is called unit triangle function.
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Sinc Function
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Discrete-Time Signals
• Sampling is the acquisition of the values of a
continuous-time signal at discrete points in time
x(t) is a continuous-time signal
x[n] is a discrete-time signal
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Discrete Time Sinusoidal and Exponential Signals
⚫ DT signals can be defined in a manner analogous to
their continuous-time counter part
x[n] = A sin (2Пn/No+θ)
Discrete Time Sinusoidal Signal
= A sin (2ПFon+ θ)
x[n] = an Discrete Time Exponential Signal
n = the discrete time
A = amplitude
θ = phase shifting radians,
No = Discrete Period of the wave
1/N0 = Fo = Ωo/2 П = Discrete Frequency
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Discrete Time Sinusoidal Signals
Discrete Time Unit Step Function or
Unit Sequence Function
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Discrete Time Unit Ramp Function
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Discrete Time Unit Impulse Function or
Unit Pulse Sequence
• The discrete-time unit impulse is a function in the ordinary
sense in contrast with the continuous-time unit impulse.
• It has a sampling property.
• It has no scaling property i.e.
δ[n]= δ[an] for any non-zero finite integer ‘a’
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Transformation in independent variable (time) of signals
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Operations of Signals
⚫ Sometime a given mathematical function may
completely describe a signal .
⚫ Different operations are required for different purposes
of arbitrary signals.
⚫ The operations on signals can be
Time Shifting
Time Scaling
Time Inversion or Time Folding
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Time Shifting
⚫ The original signal x(t) is shifted by an amount tₒ.
⚫ X(t)🡪X(t-to) 🡪Signal Delayed🡪 Shift to the right
X(t)🡪X(t+to) 🡪Signal Advanced🡪 Shift to the left
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Time Scaling
⚫ For the given function x(t), x(at) is the time scaled version of
x(t)
⚫ For a ˃ 1,period of function x(t) reduces and function speeds
up. Graph of the function shrinks.
⚫ For a ˂ 1, the period of the x(t) increases and the function
slows down. Graph of the function expands.
Examples: Given x(t) and we are to find y(t) =
x(2t).
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Time Reversal
⚫ Time reversal is also called time folding
⚫ In Time reversal signal is reversed with respect to
time i.e.
y(t) = x(-t) is obtained for the given function
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Operations of Discrete Time
Functions
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Continued…...
Scaling: Also known as Signal Compression or interpolation depends
on scaling factor (K)
K an integer > 1
UNIT II
INTRODUCTION TO Fourier Series
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Trigonometric Form of the Fourier Series
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Trigonometric representation of signal
D
C
P Even Part Odd Part
ar
t T is a period of all the above signals
Let ω0=2π/T.
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Decomposition
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Fourier series coefficient
formulae
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Use the following facts:
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Example (Square Wave)
f(t
) 1
- - - - - -π π 2π 3π 4π 5π
6π 5π 4π 3π 2π
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Example (Square Wave)
f(t
) 1
- - - - - -π π 2π 3π 4π 5π
6π 5π 4π 3π 2π
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Example (Square Wave)
f(t
) 1
- - - - - -π π 2π 3π 4π 5π
6π 5π 4π 3π 2π
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Harmonics
D
C
P Even Part Odd Part
ar
t Department
T is a periodofof all the above signals
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Harmonics
Define , called the fundamental angular frequency.
Define , called the n-th harmonic of the periodic function.
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Harmonics
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Amplitudes and Phase Angles
harmonic amplitude phase
angle
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Fourier Series
Complex Form
of the Fourier
Series
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Complex Exponentials
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Complex Form of the Fourier Series
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Complex Form of the Fourier Series
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Complex Form of the Fourier Series
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Complex Form of the Fourier Series
If f(t) is
real,
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Complex Frequency Spectra
| amplitude
spectrum
cn|
ω
phase
φn spectru
m
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Example
f(t)
A
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Example
A/5
- -80π -40π 0 40π 80π 120
-120 - -5ω0 5ω0 10ω π
15ω
π
15ω 10ω 0 0
0 0
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Example
A/
10
- -80π -40π 0 40π 80π 120
120 10ω 20ω π
30ω
- - -
π
30ω 20ω 10ω 0 0 0
0 0 0
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Example
f(t)
A
t
0
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Property
φ(t): Test Function
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Fourier Series
Impulse
Train
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Dirac Delta Function
and
Also called unit impulse
0 t function.
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Impulse Train
− − − 0 T 2 3 t
3 2 T T T
T T
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Fourier Series of the Impulse Train
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Complex Form
Fourier Series of the Impulse Train
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SAMPLING THEOREM
• Objectives:
Representation Using Impulses
FT of a Sampled Signal
Signal Reconstruction
Signal Interpolation
Aliasing
Multirate Signal Processing
70
TYPES OF SAMPLING
71
Nyquist sampling rate for low-pass and bandpass
signals
72
Example
⚫ For an intuitive example of the Nyquist theorem, let us sample a
simple sine wave at three sampling rates: fs = 4f (2 times the Nyquist
rate), fs = 2f (Nyquist rate), and
fs = f (one-half the Nyquist rate). Figure 4.24 shows the sampling and
the subsequent recovery of the signal.
⚫ It can be seen that sampling at the Nyquist rate can create a good
approximation of the original sine wave (part a). Oversampling in
part b can also create the same approximation, but it is redundant and
unnecessary. Sampling below the Nyquist rate (part c) does not
produce a signal that looks like the original sine wave.
73
Recovery of a sampled sine wave for
different sampling rates
74
Representation of a CT Signal Using Impulse Functions
• The goal of this lecture is to convince you that bandlimited CT signals,
when sampled properly, can be represented as discrete-time signals
with NO loss of information. This remarkable result is known as the
Sampling Theorem.
• Recall our expression for a pulse train: x(t)
… …
t
• A sampled version of a CT signal, x(t), is: -2T -T 0 T 2T
This is known as idealized sampling.
• We can derive the complex Fourier series of a pulse train:
75
Fourier Transform of a Sampled Signal
• The Fourier series of our sampled signal, xs(t) is:
• Recalling the Fourier transform properties of linearity (the transform of a sum is the sum
of the transforms) and modulation (multiplication by a complex exponential produces a
shift in the frequency domain), we can write an expression for the Fourier transform of
our sampled signal:
• If our original signal, x(t), is bandlimited:
76
Signal Reconstruction
• Note that if, the replicas of do not overlap in the frequency domain.
We can recover the original signal exactly.
• The sampling frequency, , is referred to as the Nyquist sampling
frequency.
• There are two practical problems associated with this approach:
▪ The lowpass filter is not physically realizable. Why?
▪ The input signal is typically not bandlimited. Explain.
77
Signal Interpolation
• The frequency response of the lowpass, or interpolation, filter is:
• The impulse response of this filter is given by:
• The output of the interpolating filter is given by the convolution integral:
• Using the sifting property of the impulse:
78
Aliasing
• Recall that a time-limited signal cannot be bandlimited. Since all signals
are more or less time-limited, they cannot be bandlimited. Therefore, we
must lowpass filter most signals before sampling. This is called an anti-
aliasing filter and are typically built into an analog to digital (A/D)
converter.
• If the signal is not bandlimited distortion will occur when the signal is
sampled. We refer to this distortion as aliasing:
79
Undersampling and Oversampling of a Signal
80