CHAPTER TWO

Atoms, Molecules and Ions

 Atoms is the smallest particles of an element.

 Molecules are neutral particles made of two or more atoms
bonded together. It is the smallest unit in a compound.
 An ion is a positively or negatively charged particle.

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 Atomic structure and symbolism
• The development of modern atomic theory revealed much
about the inner structure of atoms.
• An atom contains a very small nucleus composed of
positively charged protons and uncharged neutrons,
surrounded by a much larger volume of space containing
negatively charged electrons.
• The nucleus contains the majority of an atom’s mass
because protons and neutrons are much heavier than
electrons.

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 Cont…

• Atoms composed of the protons, neutrons, and electrons is

extremely small.
For example, a carbon atom weights less than 2 × 10−23 g.
• To describe the properties of this tiny objects such as
atoms, appropriately small units of measure, such as the
atomic mass unit (amu) and the fundamental unit of charge
(e) are used.
• One amu is exactly 1/12 of the mass of one carbon-12
atom: 1 amu = 1.6605 × 10 −24g.
• The fundamental unit of charge equals to the magnitude of
the charge of an electron (e) with e = 1.602 × 10−19 C.
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 Cont…
• Summary of the Properties of Subatomic Particles

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 Cont…
Atomic number (Z):
 the number of protons in the nucleus of an atom.
 is the characteristic of an element. Its value determines
the identity of the atom.
• A neutral atom must contain the same number of positive
and negative charges, so the number of protons equals the
number of electrons.
• Therefore, the atomic number also indicates the number of
electrons in an atom.
Z=p=e

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 Cont…
Mass number (A):- the total number of protons and neutrons
in an atom.
A= p+n
The number of neutrons is therefore the difference between
the mass number and the atomic number:
n =A – Z
• Atoms are electrically neutral if they contain the same
number of positively charged protons and negatively
charged electrons if not it will be charged .
Atomic charge = number of protons − number of
electrons
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 Cont…
• An atom that gains one or more electrons will exhibit a
negative charge and is called an anion.
• An atom which loses one or more electrons will exhibit
positively charged atoms called cations.
For example, a neutral sodium atom (Z = 11) has 11
electrons.
When it loses one electron, it will become Na + (11 − 10 =
1+).
A neutral oxygen atom (Z = 8) has eight electrons, and if it
gains two electrons it will become O 2- with -2 charge (8 −
10 = 2-).
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Example 1
Iodine is an essential trace element in our diet; it exist as a
1- charge in iodized salt.
Determine the numbers of protons, neutrons, and electrons
in one of these iodine anions. Given mass number= 127 &
atomic number = 53

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 Chemical Symbols and Isotopes
 Chemical symbol is an abbreviation that is used to
indicate an element or an atom of an element.
For example, the symbol for mercury is Hg.
 Some symbols are derived from the common name of the
element; others are abbreviations of the name in another
language.
 Most symbols have one or two letters, but also three-letter
symbols have been used to describe some elements that
have atomic numbers greater than 112.

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Some Common Elements and their Symbols

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Cont…

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 Isotopes

 Isotopes are atoms of the same element with:

– the same atomic number/proton but different atomic
mass /neutron
– or atoms of the same element with the same chemical
property but different physical property.
 For example, magnesium exists as a mixture of three
isotopes, each with an atomic number of 12 and with mass
numbers of 24, 25, and 26, respectively( 24Mg, 25Mg, and
26
Mg)
 All magnesium atoms have 12 protons in their nucleus.
They differ only because a 24Mg atom has 12 neutrons in
its nucleus, a 25Mg atom has 13 neutrons, and a 26Mg has
12
14 neutrons.
 Cont…
Naturally occurring isotopes of elements with atomic numbers 1
and 2

13
 Atomic mass unit and average atomic mass

• The atomic mass of a single atom is approximately equal

to its mass number (a whole number).
• However, the average masses of atoms of most elements
are not whole numbers because most elements exist
naturally as mixtures of two or more isotopes.
Therefore; the mass of an element shown in a periodic table
is a weighted, average mass of all naturally occurring
isotopes of the element.

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 Cont…
Example:- Boron is composed of two isotopes: 10B has
abundance of 19.9% and mass of 10.0129 amu, while 11B
has abundance of 80.1% and a mass of 11.0093 amu.
The average atomic mass for boron is calculated

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 Cont…

Exercise:-
1. Analysis of a sample of the gas showed that it consisted of
91.84% 20Ne (mass 19.9924 amu), 0.47% 21Ne (mass 20.9940
amu), and 7.69% 22Ne (mass 21.9914 amu). What is the
average mass of the neon in the solar wind?
2. Naturally occurring chlorine consists of 35Cl (mass 34.96885
amu) and 37Cl (mass 36.96590 amu), with an average mass of
35.453 amu. What is the percent composition of Cl in terms of
these two isotopes?
3. Naturally occurring copper consists of 63Cu (mass 62.9296
amu) and 65Cu (mass 64.9278 amu), with an average mass of
63.546 amu. What is the percent composition of Cu in terms of
these two isotopes? 16
 Chemical Formulas
A molecular formula is a representation of a molecule that
uses chemical symbols to indicate the types of atoms and
number of atoms of each type in the molecule.
Structural formula for a compound gives the same
information like molecular formula but also shows how
the atoms are connected in the molecule.
Example:- The structural formula for methane contains
symbols for one C atom and four H atoms, indicating the
number of atoms in the molecule. The lines represent
bonds that hold the atoms together.

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 Cont…
Note:-
 It is important to note that a subscript following a symbol
and a number in front of a symbol do not represent the
same thing; for example, H2 and 2H represent distinctly
different species.
 H2 is a molecular formula; it represents a diatomic
molecule of hydrogen, consisting of two atoms of the
element that are chemically bonded together.
 The expression 2H, on the other hand, indicates two
separate hydrogen atoms that are not combined as a unit.

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 Empirical and Molecular Formulas

 Compounds are formed when two or more elements

chemically combine, resulting in the formation of bonds.
 The composition of these compounds is described with an
empirical formula that indicates the types of atoms present
and the simplest whole number ratio of the number of atoms
(or ions) in the compound.
For example:- Titanium dioxide has an empirical formula of
TiO2.
This identifies the elements titanium (Ti) and oxygen (O) as
the constituents of titanium dioxide, and indicates the
presence of twice as many atoms of the element oxygen as
atoms of the element titanium
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 Cont…

For example, the molecular formula for acetic acid, is

C2H4O2.
The ratio of atoms in this molecule is 2:4:2, then to get
the empirical formula dividing it by the lowest common
denominator (2) gives the simplest, whole-number ratio of
the atoms( 1:2:1). so the empirical formula is CH 2O.
 Note that a molecular formula is always a whole
number multiple of an empirical formula.

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 Cont…
Exercise
1. Molecules of glucose (blood sugar) contain 6 carbon
atoms, 12 hydrogen atoms, and 6 oxygen atoms. What
are the molecular and empirical formulas of glucose?
2. A molecule of metaldehyde contains 8 carbon atoms, 16
hydrogen atoms, and 4 oxygen atoms. What are the
molecular and empirical formulas of metaldehyde?

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 Periodic Table
Historical development of the periodic table
• Mendeleev in Russia (1869) and Lothar Meyer in
Germany (1870) independently recognized that there was
a periodic relationship among the properties of the
elements .
 Both arranged elements according to increasing atomic
mass.
 Modern periodic law, the properties of the elements are
periodic functions of their atomic numbers and elements
are arranged in increasing order of their atomic numbers
and groups atoms with similar properties in the same
vertical column.
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 Cont…

 Elements are arranged in seven horizontal rows, called

periods or series, and 18 vertical columns, called groups.

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 Classification of elements in the periodic
table
 Elements are sorted into three large classes depending on
their common properties:
Metals:- elements that are shiny, malleable, good conductors
of heat and electricity.
Nonmetals:- elements that appear dull, poor conductors of
heat and electricity.
Metalloids:- elements that conduct heat and electricity
moderately well, and possess some properties of metals and
some properties of nonmetals.

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 Cont…

Elements can also be classified as: -

 Main-group elements (or representative elements) are
elements in the columns 1, 2, and 13–18; It consists of
alkali metals, alkaline earth metals, Carbon family,
Nitrogen family(pnictogens), chalcogens, halogens,
and the noble gases.
 Transition metals are elements in the columns 3–12.
 Inner transition metals are elements in the two rows at
the bottom of the periodic table.
 Lanthanides
 Actinides
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26
 Ionic and Molecular Compounds

 The transfer and sharing of electrons among atoms

govern the chemistry of the elements.
 During the formation of some compounds, atoms gain or
lose electrons, and form electrically charged particles
called ions.
 Alkali metal loses one electron and forms a cation with a
1+ charge and alkaline earth metal loses two electrons and
forms a cation with a 2+ charge, to have the same number
of electrons as an atom of the preceding noble gas.

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 Cont…
• When atoms of nonmetal elements form ions, they
generally gain enough electrons to give them the same
number of electrons as an atom of the next noble gas.
• Atoms of group 17 gain one electron and form anions with
a 1− charge; atoms of group 16 gain two electrons and
form ions with a 2− charge.
• In fact, transition metals and some other metals often
exhibit variable charges that are not predictable by their
location in the table.
• For example, copper can form ions with a 1+ or 2+ charge,
and iron can form ions with a 2+ or 3+ charge.
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 Cont…
 The ions described above are so far monatomic ions, that is,
they are ions formed from only one atom.
 polyatomic ions are ions formed by two or more atoms,
act as discrete units and are electrically charged molecules.
Some of the more important polyatomic ions are

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Cont…

30
Cont…

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 Chemical bonding
• It is the natural attractive forces that hold atoms or ions
together within a compound.
• Ionic bonds are electrostatic forces of attraction,
experienced between objects of opposite electrical charge.
• It is formed by transfer of electrons from one atom to the
other atom.
• Covalent bonds are the attractive forces between the
positively charged nuclei of the bonded atoms and one or
more pairs of electrons that are located between the atoms.
• It is formed by sharing of electrons between two or more
atoms .
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 Formation of Ionic Compounds
 Ionic compounds:
– Are compounds that contains ions and is held together
by ionic bonds.
– are compounds formed by transfer of electrons from
outer most shell of the metal to the outer most shell of
the non metal.
For example, when sodium gives up one electron to form a
sodium cation Na+ and chlorine atom accepts one electron
to form a chloride anion, Cl−, electrostatic force of
attraction will be developed between the two oppositely
charged ions resulting the ionic compound, NaCl.
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 Cont…

 In every ionic compound, the total number of positive

charges of the cations equals the total number of negative
charges of the anions.
 Ionic compounds are electrically neutral overall, even
though they contain positive and negative ions.
Example- The gemstone sapphire is mostly a compound of
aluminum and oxygen that contains aluminum cations,
Al3+and oxygen anions, O2−. What is the formula of this
compound?
Solution
Because the ionic compound must be electrically neutral, it
must have the same number of positive and negative
charges. 34
 Cont…

To balance charge of Al3+, is multiply it by 2 and charge

of O2-, is by 3 then, formula would be Al2O3.
 As simple ionic compounds, ionic compounds contain
polyatomic ions must also be electrically neutral, so their
formulas can be predicted by treating the polyatomic ions
as discrete units.
For example, Bone made up of the mineral calcium
phosphate calcium ions (Ca2+) and (PO43−) groups. The
PO43−groups are discrete units,
Solution
To balance the charge multiply charge of Ca2+ by 3 and
charge of PO43− by 2. Then the formula will be
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 Cont…
Exercise
1. Predict the formula of the ionic compound formed
between the lithium ion and the peroxide ion, O 22- (Hint:
Use the periodic table to predict the sign and the charge
on the lithium ion.)
2. Predict the formula of the ionic compound formed
between the sodium cation, Na+, and the sulfide anion,
S2−.
.

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 Formation of Molecular Compounds

 Molecular compounds (covalent compounds) result when

atoms share rather than transfer (gains or losses), electrons.
 Under normal conditions, molecular compounds often exist as
gases, low-boiling liquids, and low-melting solids.
Exercise
Predict whether the following compounds are ionic or
molecular:
(a) KI, the compound used as a source of iodine in table salt.
(b) H2O2, the bleach and disinfectant hydrogen peroxide.
(c) CHCl3, the anesthetic chloroform.
(d) Li2CO3, a source of lithium in antidepressants.
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 Chemical Nomenclature
Ionic compounds
 The name of a binary compound containing monatomic
ions consists of the name of the cation (metal) followed by
the name of the anion (non-metal) in which its ending
replaced by the suffix -ide.
Names of Some Ionic Compounds

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 Cont…

 Compounds containing polyatomic ions are named

similarly to those containing only monatomic ions, i.e. by
naming first the cation and then the anion.
Names of Some Polyatomic Ionic Compounds

39
 Cont…
 Compounds of metals with variable charge with nonmetals
are named with the same method except the charge of the
metal ion is specified by a Roman numeral after the name
of the metal in open bracket.
Some Ionic Compounds with Variably Charged Metal Ions

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 Ionic Hydrates
 Hydrates are ionic compounds that contain water
molecules as integral components of their crystals.
 The name for an ionic hydrate is derived by adding a term
to the name for the anhydrous compound that indicates the
number of water molecules by using prefixes.
Example-
CuSO4∙5H2O - Copper(II) sulfate pentahydrate
Na2CO3∙10H2O- Sodium carbonate decahydrate
CrCl3.6H2O - ?
FeSO4.7H2O - ?
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 Cont…
Exercise
1. Name the following ionic compounds
(a) Fe2S3 (b) CuSO4 (c) GaN (d) MgSO4·7H2O (e)
Ti2(SO4)3
2. Write the formulas of the following ionic compounds:
(a) Chromium(III) phosphide (d) copper(I) oxide
(b) Mercury(II) sulfide (e) iron(III) chloride dihydrate
(c) Manganese(II) phosphate

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 Molecular Compounds
 The naming method is some what similar to that of ionic
compounds, but prefixes are used to specify the
numbers of atoms of each element.
Names of Some Molecular Compounds Composed of
Two Elements

43
 Cont…
Exercise
1. Name the following covalent compounds:
(a) SF6 (b) N2O3 (c) Cl2O7 (d) P4O6
2. Write the formulas for the following compounds:
(a) Phosphorus pentachloride
(b) Dinitrogen monoxide
(c) Iodine heptafluoride
(d) Carbon tetrachloride

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 Binary Acids
 If the compound is a binary acid (comprised of
hydrogen and one other nonmetallic element):
1. The word “hydrogen” is changed to the prefix hydro-
2. Other nonmetallic element name is modified by adding
the suffix –ic.
3. The word “acid” is added as a second word.

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 Oxyacids
 Oxyacids are compounds that contain hydrogen, oxygen,
and at least one other element.
 Typical oxyacids consist of hydrogen combined with a
polyatomic, oxygen-containing ion.
To name such compounds oxyacids:
1. Omit “hydrogen”
2. Start with the root name of the anion
3. Replace –ate with –ic, or –ite with –ous
4. Add “acid”

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 Cont…
Names of Common Oxyacids

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Don’t forget
to-do review
Exercise
48