Gr.

12 Life Sciences

Reproduction strategies in
Vertebrates and Human reproduction
 REPRODUCTION STRATEGIES IN VERTEBRATES
NAME THE TWO TYPES OF FERTILISATION:

EXTERNAL INTERNAL
REPRODUCTION STRATEGIES

OVOVIVIPAROUS
The eggs hatch within the
mothers body and the young
are born. No eggs are laid.
For example sharks.
 OVOVIVIPAROUS
DEFINE THIS TERM AND NAME 2 ADVANTAGES
• Refers to animals that do not lay eggs , but keep
them in their bodies until they hatch.
• The body temperature is necessary for them to
hatch.
• There is no connection between the embryo and
the mother.
• Examples : Sharks , lizards cockroaches and some
snakes
• ADVANTAGES :
• The young one is protected from cold and
predators to ensure survival
• The young one can develop to a fairly large size
before birth
 VIVIPAROUS

DEFINE THIS TERM AND NAME 2 ADVANTAGES AND 2 DISADVANTAGES

• Refers to animals that give birth to live young
ones.
• There is a connection between the developing
foetus and the mother.
• Examples : Human beings, whales and
kangaroos.

• Advantages :
• The temperature is regulated by the mother
• The mother provides nutrition for the young one
• Mortality rate is lower

• Disadvantages :
• Number of off springs produced is few.
• More energy is used to provide parental care.
 OVIPAROUS
DEFINE THIS TERM, NAME 2 ADVANTAGES AND A DISADVANTAGE:

• Refers to egg laying animals

• Eggs are protected by a hard shell while others are
protected by a jelly like layer after fertilisation.
• Development does not occur inside the body
• The development of an organism is completed inside
the egg after it has been aid
• Examples: Frogs, insects, birds and marine animals
• Advantages:
• Eggs and sperm cells are produced in large numbers to
increase chances of survival to adulthood.
• Much energy is invested for parental care.
• Parental care ensures survival to adulthood.
Amniotic egg
Precocial and Altricial development
PARENTAL CARE
 HUMAN
REPRODUCTION
The male reproductive system

Name the functions of the following labels:

 The male reproductive system

• Testes are responsible for producing sperm and testosterone.

• Epididymis is where sperm are stored and mature.
• Vas deferens or sperm ducts transport sperm to urethra / penis.
• Urethra conducts sperm into female body.
• Penis is the organ for copulation and places the semen inside the
vagina
• Seminal vesicles add fluid to semen, which contains fructose (sugar)
that provides energy to sperm.
• Prostate glands add fluid to semen, which contains enzymes to make
the sperm more active.
• Cowper’s gland adds mucus (fluid) to semen, which neutralise any
acidity in the urethra
 TESTES

- Septum separates testis into compartments.

- Seminiferous tubules are where the sperm is
produced during spermatogenesis.
 PUBERTY IN MALES

Stimulated by testosterone
Growth of male sex organs
Start of the production of sperm cells
Growth of pubic hair, facial hair and
body hair
Development of muscles and deepening
of voice
SPERM CELL
SPERMATOGENESIS

- Gametogenesis is the process responsible

for producing gametes.
- Spermatogenesis is the process
responsible for producing sperm cells.
- Epithelial cells in the testes undergo
mitosis to form diploid spermatocytes
- Each diploid spermatocyte in the
seminiferous tubules of the testes
undergoes meiosis
- Four (4) haploid spermatids are formed
- Each spermatid matures to form a haploid
sperm cell/spermatozoan
 QUESTION 1 ON MALE REPRODUCTIVE SYSTEM
[Link] the diagrams below and answer the questions on the right hand side :

1.1. Provide labels for A, B, E and G (4)

• 1.2. State ONE function each of C and F,
respectively.
(2)
[Link] the LETTER and NAME of the part
where sperms are produced.
(2)
1.4. Explain why it is necessary for part D to 'hang
outside' the body of the male.
(2)
1.5. Name the following:
(a) The cells that secrete a male
sex hormone
(1)
(b) The hormone that stimulates
the
development of secondary sexual
 ANSWERS ON QUESTION 1 MALE REPRODUCTIVE SYSTEM

1.1.A - prostate gland

B - vas deferens / sperm duct
E - urethra
G - nucleus

1.2. C - Stores sperms temporarily/sperms mature here

F - Contain enzymes to break down the cell membrane of the egg cell

1.3. D - testis /seminiferous tubules

1.4. To keep the testes at a temperature that is (about 3˚ C) lower than

body temperature
A lower temperature is necessary for the production of healthy sperm /so that
healthy sperms can survive
 ANSWERS ON QUESTION 1 MALE REPRODUCTIVE SYSTEM

1.5. (a) Interstitial cells/Cells of Leydig

(b) Testosterone

1.6. Severing of the vas deferens

Will not allow sperms to pass to urethra and into the female
and hence no fertilisation results.
QUESTION 2 ON MALE REPRODUCTIVE SYSTEM
2. The diagram on the left represents
a cross-sectional view of a human
seminiferous tubule in which
spermatogenesis is occurring. Study the
diagram and answer the questions that
follow.
[Link] the hormone produced by the
cells of Leydig.
(1)
[Link] TWO functions of the hormone
named in QUESTION 1.
(2)
2.3. Identify part labelled A.
(1)
[Link] a neat, labeled diagram of part
A.
(4)
 ANSWERS ON QUESTION 2 MALE REPRODUCTIVE SYSTEM
2.1. Testosterone
2.2. Stimulates the development of primary male sex organs/ penis and
testes
Stimulates the development of secondary male characteristics /
growth of body hair/muscle development/ deep voice
2.3 spermatozoa/ sperm cell
2.4
 FEMALE REPRODUCTION SYSTEM
NAME THE FUNCTIONS OF THE FOLLOWING LABELS:
 FEMALE REPRODUCTION SYSTEM
• Fallopian tube: connect ovaries to the uterus, site of fertilisation,
transport egg cells from the ovaries

• Ovaries: releases egg cell, secretes oestrogen and progesterone

• Uterus: carries embryo and foetus during pregnancy

• Endometrium: inner lining of uterus, place where embryo implants and

placenta forms

• Cervix: lower narrow part of uterus, it stretches to allow baby through

during childbirth

• Vagina: receives the penis and semen during sexual intercourse, the
passage through which baby is born
 PUBERTY IN FEMALES
Stimulated by oestrogen

Growth of female sex organs

Start of the menstrual cycle and

production of ova
Growth of pubic hair

Growth and development of breasts

and widening of hips
 OOGENESIS
Oogonium

• The creation of an ovum. mitosis

• Start with primary oocyte Meiosis 1

Primary oocyte

• Meiosis 1 results in Secondary oocyte

secondary oocyte + first First polar body

polar body Meiosis 2

• Meiosis 2 results in ovum

and second polar body Ovum Polar body

• Meiosis 2 will only be

complete if fertilisation
takes place.
 HORMONES RESPONSIBLE FOR MENSTRUAL CYCLE
HORMONE GLAND/ FUNCTION
STRUCTURE
Follicle Pituitary Gland  In females, stimulates development
Stimulating of a follicle in the ovary.
Hormone (FSH)
Luteinizing Pituitary Gland  In females, causes ovulation.
Hormone (LH)  Stimulates empty Graafian follicle to
develop into corpus luteum.
Oestrogen Primary  Stimulates the endometrium to
follicle/Graafian follicle thicken in preparation for implantation
inside ovaries of a fertilized ovum.
 Stimulates pituitary gland to
secrete LH.
 Inhibits secretion of FSH so that no
further follicles are produced.

Progesterone Corpus Luteum  Maintains endometrium.

 Prevents pituitary gland from
producing FSH and LH.
 MENSTRUAL CYCLE
Follicular phase
• FSH starts the development
of a few primary follicles.
• The development of the
follicle is through a process
of oogenesis.
• Usually only one follicle
matures.(takes about 10
days)
• This follicle produces
oestrogen.
• Oestrogen causes
endometrium to thicken
& to be vascular.
 OVULATION

DESCRIBE THE PROCESS OF OVULATION:

• is the release of an egg (ovum) from the ovary after
the breaking of a mature Graafian follicle.

• It is stimulated by high level of LH in the blood.

• Ovulation usually occurs on the 14th day following

the first day of the last menstrual period.
HORMONAL CONTROL
MENSTRUAL CYCLE
CHANGING HORMONE LEVELS DURING MENSTRUAL CYCLE
 QUESTIONS ON FEMALE REPRODUCTIVE SYSTEM

1. Study the diagram below showing the sequence of events of the development of an
ovum in a 28-day cycle.
1.1 Identify the following:
D
(a) Follicle labelled A A
(1)

(b) Structure labelled C

(1) B

(c) Process shown at B C

(1)
1.3 If the events shown above took place in a 28-
(d) Hormone responsible for the day cycle, state whether fertilisation took place
formation of part A during this period.
(1) (1)
(e) Hormone responsible for the 1.4 Explain your answer to QUESTION 1.3.
formation of part C (3)
(1)
1.5 Explain HOW and WHY the production of
QUESTIONS ON FEMALE REPRODUCTIVE SYSTEM
STUDY GRAPH ON LEFT AND ANSWER QUESTIONS:
2.1. On which day does ovulation take place?

(1)
2.2 Between which days does
menstruation take place?

(1)
2.3 State any ONE function of luteinising
hormone (LH).
(1)
2.4 Describe the changes in the level of
LH shown in the graph.
(3)
2.5 Describe the relationship between
the level of oestrogen and the
endometrium from day 7 to day 14.
(2)
2.6 Explain why it is necessary for the
 ANSWERS FEMALE REPRODUCTIVE SYSTEM
1.1 (a) Graafian follicle
(b) Corpus luteum
(c) Ovulation
(d) FSH
(e) LH
1.2 Meiosis
1.3 No

1.4 If fertilisation occurred the corpus luteum would stay intact and
not be destroyed.

1.5 If fertilisation occurs high levels of progesterone enters the blood. The high
levels of progesterone inhibits the production of FSH
Low levels of FSH stop the development of a ovum inside a Graafian
follicle
No ovulation occurs when the individual is pregnant
 ANSWERS OF QUESTION 2
2.1. day 14 or day 15

2.2 Days 0–7

2.3 - Causes the follicle to burst open/stimulates ovulation

- Stimulates the formation of the corpus luteum

2.4 - LH levels remain low up to day 12/13

- Then it increases sharply up to day 14
- After which it decreases and remains low

2.5 As the oestrogen level increases

the thickness of the endometrium also increases

2.6 Maintain the increase in the thickness of the endometrium

for greater chance of implantation
FERTILISATION
 FERTILISATION
FOUR MAJOR STEPS:

1. Sperm contacts the egg

2. Sperm or its nucleus enters the egg
3. Egg becomes activated and developmental
changes begin
4. Sperm and egg nuclei fuse
 WHAT HAPPENS AFTER FERTILISATION

Development of the zygote.

The zygote undergoes a series of mitotic cell

divisions called cleavage.

The stages of development are: Fertilized ovum

(zygote)  2-cell stage  4-cell stage  8-cell stage
 Morula  Blastula
 WHAT HAPPENS AFTER FERTILISATION:
TWO CELL STAGE DIVIDES
FOUR CELL STAGE
WHAT HAPPENS AFTER FERTILISATION:
MORULA DIVIDES BLASTULA
 DEVELOPMENT OF PLACENTA

EXPLAIN THE IMPORTANCE OF THE PLACENTA AND HOW

IT IS FORMED:

• The placenta is the site of nutrient, gas, and waste exchange

• Secretes hormones that maintain pregnancy

• The placenta develops from the embryonic chorion and

maternal uterine tissue

• Chorionic villi are formed from the chorion, and project into the
endometrium of the uterus
 UMBILICAL CORD

DESCRIBE THE STRUCTURE OF THE UMBILICAL CORD AND THE

FUNCTION OF THE ARTERIES AND VEIN
• The umbilical cord, containing two umbilical arteries and one
umbilical vein connects the embryo and the placenta

• Umbilical arteries carries deoxynated blood from embryo

towards placenta

• Umbilical vein carries oxygenated blood from placenta towards

embryo
 IMPLANTATION
• It takes five to seven days to reach the uterus after fertilisation
took place
• Implantation is when the embryo settles on the endometrium and
sinks into it
DEVELOPMENT OF PLACENTA
Human Foetus at Ten Weeks
 QUESTION ON GESTATION
A

The human foetus

1.1 Provide labels for A and B.

(2)
1.2 Explain ONE way in which the part labelled B is structurally
adapted for its function.
(2)
1.3 List TWO functions of the fluid found at C.
(2)
 ANSWERS ON QUESTION 1 GESTATION

1.1 A - Umbilical cord

B - Placenta

1.2 - Has folds/villi to enlarge the surface area

- Enriched with blood vessels for transport of gases/nutrients/

waste products
- Selective permeable membranes to promote diffusion of gases/
substances
- Contains blood sinuses to bring blood of mother in close
association with that of foetus

1.3 - acts as a shock absorber/prevents mechanical damage

- prevent great variation in temperature
- allows for movement of the foetus
- passes out before birth to lubricate the birth canal
 QUESTION 2 ON GESTATION

B A
2.1 Provide the labels for parts
C
A, B and D.
(3)
E
2.2 Describe the function of E
D
during the birth process. (2)

2.3 State what happens to the

level of progesterone after birth.
(1)
 ANSWERS QUESTION 2 GESTATION

2.1 A – Placenta / Chorionic villi 

B – Umbilical Cord
D – Cervix 
(3)

2.2 Contraction of the muscular wall of the uterus pushes

the foetus out/
placenta and umbilical cord/ after birth
(2)

[Link] level drops as the pregnancy stage is

completed
(1)