AVIONICS

Terrestrial NAVIGATION
Radio-Navigation SYSTEMS
3.4 Point
Systems Source
Systems

1. Direction-Finding
 The basic method of direction-finding:

There are three means to

measure the bearing. They are
maximum, minimum and
equivalence method. We can
measure the θ by the amplitude of
signal from the transmitter.

1
 AVIONICS
Terrestrial NAVIGATION
Radio-Navigation SYSTEMS
3.4 Point
Systems Source
Systems
1. Direction-Finding
 The basic method of direction-finding:

1 polar diagram of transmitter

Maximum method

Turning the antenna

to find the maximum
of the signal amplitude
from the transmitter.

2
 AVIONICS
Terrestrial NAVIGATION
Radio-Navigation SYSTEMS
3.4 Point
Systems Source
Systems
1. Direction-Finding
 The basic method of direction-finding:

2 polar diagram of transmitter

Minimum method
Turning the antenna
to find the minimum
of the signal amplitude
from the transmitter.
This method has the
antenna maximum
sensitive direction

3
 AVIONICS
Terrestrial NAVIGATION
Radio-Navigation SYSTEMS
3.4 Point
Systems Source
Systems
1. Direction-Finding
 The basic method of direction-finding:

3 polar diagram transmitter

of equisignal
method
Turning the antenna
to find the equivalence
of the signal amplitude
from the transmitter

4
 AVIONICS
Terrestrial NAVIGATION
Radio-Navigation SYSTEMS
Systems
3.4 Point Source Systems
Introduction
1. Direction-Finding
 Direction-finding represents the
earliest use of radio for
navigational purposes; it continues
to perform a useful function,
particularly in those parts of the
world that have not yet adopted the
more specialized navigation aids.
5
 AVIONICS
Terrestrial NAVIGATION
Radio-Navigation SYSTEMS
3.4 Point
Systems Source
Systems
1. Direction-Finding The use

Its chief attraction lies in the fact that,
with the proper receiving equipment, the
direction of a transmitter can be found.
 Such transmitters do not necessarily
have to be specially designed for
direction-finding; they can be
broadcast stations, communication
stations, navigation stations, or any
other kind of radiating system.
6
 AVIONICS
Terrestrial NAVIGATION
Radio-Navigation SYSTEMS
3.4 Point
Systems Source
Systems

1. Direction-Finding Introduction

 The chief drawback of direction-

finding is that quite elaborate
receiving equipment must be used if
the best accuracy is to be obtained.
Most aircraft are unable to
accommodate such equipment.

7
 AVIONICS
Terrestrial NAVIGATION
Radio-Navigation SYSTEMS
3.4 Point
Systems Source
Systems
1. Direction-Finding category
Direction-finders for aircraft navigation
may be grouped into two broad classes:

(1) Ground-based direction-finders. These

take bearings on airborne transmitters and
then advise the aircraft of its bearing from
the ground station. Such stations can afford
the necessary complex equipment, but the
operation is cumbersome and time-
consuming, and requires an airborne
transmitter and communication link.
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 AVIONICS
Terrestrial NAVIGATION
Radio-Navigation SYSTEMS
3.4 Point
Systems Source
Systems

1. Direction-Finding

transmitter N

communication link
receiver

θ Bearing

9
 AVIONICS
Terrestrial NAVIGATION
Radio-Navigation SYSTEMS
3.4 Point
Systems Source
Systems
1. Direction-Finding category

(2) Airborne direction-finders and homing

adapters. These take bearings on ground
transmitters. These direction-finders typically can
afford only the simplest of systems and must,
therefore, tolerate large errors. However, even the
largest bearing errors will not prevent an aircraft
from homing in on the source of that bearing,
though not necessarily by the most direct route.
Direction-finding therefore continues to be used as
a backup aid to more accurate systems.

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 AVIONICS
Terrestrial NAVIGATION
Radio-Navigation SYSTEMS
3.4 Point
Systems Source
Systems

1. Direction-Finding application

 With simple antenna systems, reliable directional

information can be obtained only from ground
waves or from line-of-sight waves.
 In the low and medium-frequency bands,
ground waves are useful to hundreds of miles;
however, they are subject to sky-wave
contamination (especially at night) at much
shorter distances.
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 AVIONICS
Terrestrial NAVIGATION
Radio-Navigation SYSTEMS
3.4 Point
Systems Source
Systems
1. Direction-Finding application

 This night effect is now recognized by

users of low- and medium-frequency
direction-finders. Reliance is placed on
the readings only when the direction-
finder is close enough to the station to
be within good ground-wave coverage
(typically 200 mi. at 200 kHz and 50 mi.
at 1600 kHz). During thunderstorms,
these distances are further reduced.
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 AVIONICS
Terrestrial NAVIGATION
Radio-Navigation SYSTEMS
3.4 Point
Systems Source
Systems

1. Direction-Finding

This is the antenna on board. It is a directional

antenna. The antenna’s state-of-the-art has
progressed through the following stages:

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AVIONICS
Terrestrial NAVIGATION
Radio-Navigation SYSTEMS
3.4 Point
Systems Source
Systems

1. Direction-Finding

(1) Fixed loop. Intended for flying radial

courses to and from the ground station by
orienting the aircraft for minimum signal.
(2) Rotatable loop. Hand-operated systems that
were abandoned because of the work load they
imposed on the pilot.

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 AVIONICS
Terrestrial NAVIGATION
Radio-Navigation SYSTEMS
3.4 Point
Systems Source
Systems
1. Direction-Finding
（ 3 ） Rotating loop. Driven by a motor
and forming part of a servo system that
automatically rotates the loop until a
null is found and then stops, sometimes
referred to as a radio compass. Early
loops were about nine inches in
diameter and were housed in teardrop-
shaped plastic enclosures about one
foot away from the aircraft skin.
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AVIONICS
Terrestrial NAVIGATION
Radio-Navigation SYSTEMS
3.4 Point
Systems Source
Systems

transmitter

transmitter

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 AVIONICS
Terrestrial NAVIGATION
Radio-Navigation SYSTEMS
3.4 Point
Systems Source
Systems
1. Direction-Finding
(4) Fixed, crossed loops, with a motor-driven
goniometer. Forming part of a servo system that
automatically displays bearing in the cockpit.
The prime advantage of this system over those
using the physically rotating loop is that all
moving parts (except the indicator) are in the
radio-receiver box. Antenna projection from the
aircraft with such a system in as low as one inch,
with horizontal dimensions of about one foot.
Typical airline-type equipment weigh less than
20 lb.
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AVIONICS
Terrestrial NAVIGATION
Radio-Navigation SYSTEMS
3.4 Point
Systems Source
Systems
1. Direction-Finding
 Loop Antenna Direction-Finder Principles

 This type of receiver is no longer in

production, but its basic principles still
apply to the current generation of
equipment.

19
 AVIONICS
Terrestrial NAVIGATION
Radio-Navigation SYSTEMS
3.4 Point
Systems Source
Systems
1. Direction-Finding
 Loop Antenna Direction-Finder Principles
 The basic principle of direction
finding is the measurement of
differential distance to a transmitter
from two or more known points. To
reduce instrument errors, it is
desirable to use common circuitry at
both of the measuring points.

20
 AVIONICS
Terrestrial NAVIGATION
Radio-Navigation SYSTEMS
3.3
Systems SYSTEM DESIGN
CONSIDERATIONS

r = Distance due to known delay between arrival at A and

B

Receive A
θ

Known base line

Receive B
Direction of arrival of signal

The principle of direction finder

 AVIONICS
Terrestrial NAVIGATION
Radio-Navigation SYSTEMS
3.4 Point
Systems Source
Systems
1. Direction-Finding
 Loop Antenna Direction-Finder Principles
 Furthermore, for operational
convenience, it is desirable to have
the two points close together. The
loop antenna fulfills both of these
requirements admirably.

22
AVIONICS
Terrestrial NAVIGATION
Radio-Navigation SYSTEMS
3.4 Point
Systems Source
Systems
1. Direction-Finding
 Loop Antenna Direction-Finder Principles

Figure 3.9 Direction-finding loop

23
 AVIONICS
Terrestrial NAVIGATION
Radio-Navigation SYSTEMS
3.4 Point
Systems Source
Systems
1. Direction-Finding
 Loop Antenna Direction-Finder Principles

The loop antenna in Figure 3.9 is a rectangular loop of wire

whose inductance is resonated by a variable capacitor to the
frequency to be received. The signal is assumed to be vertically
polarized, and, consequently, it induces voltage in the arms AB
and CD of the loop. If the loop were constructed accurately, these
currents would be equal in amplitude and phase when the plane
of the loop is exactly 90° to the direction of arrival of the signal.
This is referred to as the null position of the loop (zero loop
current). Physically rotating the loop to the null position
indicates the direction to the transmitting station (i.e., the station
is 90° from the plane of the loop).
24
 AVIONICS
Terrestrial NAVIGATION
Radio-Navigation SYSTEMS
3.4 Point
Systems Source
Systems
1. Direction-Finding
 Loop Antenna Direction-Finder Principles

If the correct amplitudes and

phases are maintained, the
horizontal antenna pattern is a
figure of eight by circles A and B.
This pattern has two null positions
180° apart.

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AVIONICS
Terrestrial NAVIGATION
Radio-Navigation SYSTEMS
3.4 Point
Systems Source
Systems
1. Direction-Finding
 Loop Antenna Direction-Finder Principles

A B

A = left-hand loop pattern;

B = right-hand loop pattern,
180° out of phase with A

26
 AVIONICS
Terrestrial NAVIGATION
Radio-Navigation SYSTEMS
3.4 Point
Systems Source
Systems
1. Direction-Finding
 Loop Antenna Direction-Finder Principles
 This ambiguity will cause the antenna
system to give the same indication whether
it is pointing toward a station or away
from it. A sense antenna can be added
when the signal ambiguity must be
resolved.

27
AVIONICS
Terrestrial NAVIGATION
Radio-Navigation SYSTEMS
3.4 Point
Systems Source
Systems
1. Direction-Finding
 Loop Antenna Direction-Finder Principles

The sense antenna

E

A B

C
F
A = left-hand loop pattern;
B = right-hand loop pattern;
C = omnidirectional pattern,
28
 AVIONICS
Terrestrial NAVIGATION SYSTEMS
Radio-Navigation
3.4 Point
Systems Source
Systems
1. Direction-Finding
 Loop Antenna Direction-Finder Principles

The sense antenna +

E
A - B +
C

A = left-hand loop pattern;

F
B = right-hand loop pattern,
180° out of phase with A ;
C = omnidirectional pattern,
180° out of phase with A;
29
 AVIONICS
Terrestrial NAVIGATION
Radio-Navigation SYSTEMS
3.4 Point
Systems Source
Systems
1. Direction-Finding
 Loop Antenna Direction-Finder Principles

The sense antenna

 The sense antenna adds an additional 90 ° phase
shift. As the loop changes direction, its phase will
vary with respect to the constant sense antenna
voltage resulting in the cardioid pattern shown in
Figure 3.10.

30
AVIONICS
Terrestrial NAVIGATION
Radio-Navigation SYSTEMS
3.4 Point
Systems Source
Systems
1. Direction-Finding
 Loop Antenna Direction-Finder Principles

The sense antenna Combined pattern

+ Patterns
synthesize
A - B +
C

31
AVIONICS NAVIGATION SYSTEMS
Cardioid_animation

32
 AVIONICS
Terrestrial NAVIGATION
Radio-Navigation SYSTEMS
3.4 Point
Systems Source
Systems
1. Direction-Finding
 Loop Antenna Direction-Finder Principles

Figure 3.10 Loop and sense antenna patterns: A = left-hand loop

pattern; B = right-hand loop pattern, 180° out of phase with A ; C =
omnidirectional pattern, 180° out of phase with A; D = C + B - A.
33
 NDB

Heading

Nondirectional
antenna

rotating loop antenna

90°aim at the
transmitter
 AVIONICS
Terrestrial NAVIGATION
Radio-Navigation SYSTEMS
3.4 Point
Systems Source
Systems
1. Direction-Finding
 Loop Antenna Direction-Finder Principles
 The combined pattern has only one null position.
Since the omnidirectional antenna, and its phase and
amplitude relation to the loop, are less precisely
definable than the loop itself, it is customary to use the
loop alone for precise directional measurement. The
sense of the bearing can then be determined by coupling
the vertical or sense antenna to the loop and rotating the
loop 90° in a specified direction, noting whether the
signal increases or decreases as the loop antenna is
rotated.
35
AVIONICS NAVIGATION SYSTEMS
Cardioid_animation

A shortwave loop antenna

Small loop antenna

used for receiving,
consisting of about Loop antenna, receiver, and
10 turns around a accessories used in
12cm x 10cm amateur radio direction finding at 80
rectangle. meter wavelength (3.5 MHz).
36
AVIONICS NAVIGATION SYSTEMS
Cardioid_animation

Loopstick antenna having two windings, one for long wave and one
for medium wave (AM broadcast) reception. Typically 10cm long,
these are usually hidden inside the radio receiver.

37
AVIONICS
Terrestrial NAVIGATION
Radio-Navigation SYSTEMS
3.4 Point
Systems Source
Systems
1. Direction-Finding Introduction
 Goniometer Direction-Finder Principles
It is not strictly necessary to rotate the
loop mechanically in order to find the null.
Instead, two fixed loops may be placed at
right angles to each other and their
electrical outputs combined in a goniometer.
The nonrotating antenna can be attached to
the skin of the aircraft, thereby reducing
drag and increasing reliability.
merit
38
 AVIONICS
Terrestrial NAVIGATION
Radio-Navigation SYSTEMS
Systems
1. Direction-Finding General
principle
 Goniometer Direction-Finder Principles
The goniometer has two sets of fixed windings at
right angles to each other, each set connected to one
loop. In the magnetic field of these windings is a
rotor, with a winding connected to the receiver.
The goniometer, in effect, translates the
received radio field at the loops into a miniature
magnetic field in which the rotor can operate.

39
 AVIONICS NAVIGATION SYSTEMS
NDB

Goniometer
Direction-Finder
Principles

Automatic
searching

sketch map

Perpendiculer
with rotor
 AVIONICS NAVIGATION SYSTEMS
Goniometer Direction-Finder Principles

Loop
环 形antenna
天线 Sense
垂 直 天antenna
线

Automatic Amplifier Balance superheterodyne

识别 监 听
searching 90°shift modulator add receiver
自动搜 环放 平衡 迭加 超外差
索机构 相 移 90度 调制器 回路 接收机

135Hz基 准 信 号 135Hz 135Hz 幅度

伺服电机 检波
135Hz 振荡器 producer 输出
Servo reference
amplidyne 135Hz包 络 信 号 135Hz
135Hz选 频
指示 器 135Hz 滤波 filter
even lope
 AVIONICS
Terrestrial NAVIGATION
Radio-Navigation SYSTEMS
Systems
1. Direction-Finding
accuracy
 Goniometer Direction-Finder Principles
 The accuracy of these systems is of the order of 2°,
exclusive of errors induce by aircraft structure. These
errors are of considerable magnitude, except in the fore-
and-aft directions, where aircraft symmetry helps to
minimize them. Some of these errors can be calibrated out
for given airframe, but this calibration is correct only for
one frequency and/or condition of pitch and roll. As a
result, low- and medium-frequency airborne direction-
finders that use ground waves cannot produce reliable
results better than ±5°. Sky-wave contamination can raise
this figure to 30° or more.
42
 AVIONICS
Terrestrial NAVIGATION
Radio-Navigation SYSTEMS
Systems
1. Direction-Finding
Basic
 Goniometer Direction-Finder Principles principle

 The loop antenna consists of an orthogonal

pair of coils wound on a single flat ferrite core
which concentrates the magnetic (H) field
component of the e.m. wave radiated from a
distant station. The plane of one coil is aligned
with the aircraft longitudinal axis while the
other is aligned with the lateral axis.
43
 AVIONICS
Terrestrial NAVIGATION
Radio-Navigation SYSTEMS
Systems
1. Direction-Finding

HDG
Fore and
Figure A1 aft loop
st.1

Loop antenna
and goniometer

Athwartships
loop

Rotor
(search coil)
Athwartships
st.2
Fore and aft loop

44
AVIONICS NAVIGATION SYSTEMS
Aircraft
飞 机 纵 轴 axis向 NDB
无 方 向
longitudinal
信 标 台

eA (t ) eB (t )

B′

H m sin  Search
搜索
A′ C eC (t )
coil
线圈
c
与 Perpendiculer
线 圈
H m cos Hm 轴 垂 with
直 rotor
45
 AVIONICS
Terrestrial NAVIGATION
Radio-Navigation SYSTEMS
Systems
1. Direction-Finding Basic
principle
 Goniometer Direction-Finder Principles

The current induced in each coil will depend on
the direction of the magnetic field. When the plane
of the loop is perpendicular to the direction of
propagation, no voltage is induced in the loop since
the lines of flux do not link with it. It can be seen
that if one loop does not link with the magnetic
field the other will have maximum linkage.
46
 AVIONICS
Terrestrial NAVIGATION
Radio-Navigation SYSTEMS
Systems
1. Direction-Finding Basic
 Goniometer Direction-Finder Principles principle

 Figure A1 shows that the loop currents flow

through the stator winding of a goniometer
where, providing the characteristics of each
circuit are identical, the magnetic field detected
by the loop will be recreated in so far as direction
is concerned.

47
 AVIONICS
Terrestrial NAVIGATION
Radio-Navigation SYSTEMS
Systems
1. Direction-Finding Basic
principle
 Goniometer Direction-Finder Principles
 We now effectively have a rotating loop antenna
in the form of the goniometer rotor or search coil.
As the rotor turns through 360 there will be two
peaks and two nulls of the voltage induced in it. The
output of the rotor is the input to the ADF receiver
which thus sees the rotor as the antenna. Such an
arrangement is known as a Bellini-Tosi system.

48
AVIONICS
Terrestrial NAVIGATION
Radio-Navigation SYSTEMS
Systems

1. Direction-Finding Basic
principle
 Goniometer Direction-Finder Principles

 Since we are effectively back with a rotating

loop situation we should consider the polar
diagram of such an antenna as we are
interested in it’s directional properties.

49
 AVIONICS
Terrestrial NAVIGATION
Radio-Navigation SYSTEMS
Systems

1. Direction-Finding
 Goniometer Direction-Finder Principles
The polar diagram of such an antenna will be
as in Fig. A3 . It can be seen that because of the
sinusoidal nature of the plot the nulls are far
more sharply defined than the peaks.

50
 AVIONICS
Terrestrial NAVIGATION
Radio-Navigation SYSTEMS
Systems
1. Direction-Finding  Goniometer Direction-Finder Principles

 The above has assumed a vertically

polarized wave which is in fact the case
with NDBs and most broadcast
θ stations. However a vertically
r polarized signal traveling over non-
homogeneous earth and striking
reflecting objects, including the
r=|Sinθ| ionosphere can arrive at the loop with
an appreciable horizontally polarized
component.
Figure A3
51
 AVIONICS
Terrestrial NAVIGATION
Radio-Navigation SYSTEMS
Systems
1. Direction-Finding The error
 Goniometer Direction-Finder Principles
The current in the loop will then be due to two
sources, the vertical and horizontal components,
which will in general give a non-zero resultant
null, not necessarily in the direction of the plane
of the antenna. This polarization error dictates
that ADF should only be used with ground wave
signals which in the l.f./m.f. bands are useful for
several hundred miles.

52
 AVIONICS
Terrestrial NAVIGATION
Radio-Navigation SYSTEMS
Systems
1. Direction-Finding Introduction
 Airborne VHF/UHF Direction-Finder Systems
 Civil-aviation communication over land is
conducted chiefly in the 118- to 156-MHz band,
whereas the military use the 225- to 400-MHz
band. Since virtually every aircraft carries a
receiver for one or the other of these bands, a
direction-finding “attachment” for these
frequencies could be of interest to many aircraft
operators.
53
AVIONICS
Terrestrial NAVIGATION
Radio-Navigation SYSTEMS
Systems
1. Direction-Finding Introduction
 Airborne VHF/UHF Direction-Finder Systems
 Considerable work was done during World
War II in both of these bands, much of it
involving variations on the Adcock principle.
However, it was apparent that, in order to
avoid prohibitively high site errors, the
antennas would have to be of large aperture
and project into the slipstream, thus generating
drag.
54
 AVIONICS
Terrestrial NAVIGATION
Radio-Navigation SYSTEMS
Systems
1. Direction-Finding Introduction
 Airborne VHF/UHF Direction-Finder Systems

 All that survives from these efforts is some

VHF equipment used by the Coast Guard for air-
sea rescue on the 121.5 MHz distress frequency
and a military direction-finding attachment in
the 225- to 400-MHz-communication band on the
distress frequency of 343 MHz.

55
 AVIONICS
Terrestrial NAVIGATION
Radio-Navigation SYSTEMS
Systems
1. Direction-Finding types
 Airborne VHF/UHF Direction-Finder Systems
 This equipment is of two possible types,
depending on whether it is designed strictly for
homing or for both homing and direction-finding.
Equipment designed only for homing may use a
fixed-antenna system that generates two
sequentially switched cardioid patterns whose
equisignal crossover direction is found by turning
the aircraft toward the transmitting station.
56
 AVIONICS
Terrestrial NAVIGATION
Radio-Navigation SYSTEMS
Systems
1. Direction-Finding Introduction
 Airborne VHF/UHF Direction-Finder Systems

 Equipment designed for both direction finding

and homing uses a rotating antenna that generates
a similar pair of cardioid patterns, whose
equisignal crossover direction is found. Accuracy
is about 5° along the axis of the aircraft but
reaches 30° broadside.

57
 AVIONICS
Terrestrial NAVIGATION
Radio-Navigation SYSTEMS
Systems
1. Direction-Finding purpose

 Airborne VHF/UHF Direction-Finder Systems

 The direction-finding attachment is carried by

many U.S. military aircraft and is useful for air-
to-air direction finding and homing during
rendezvous and refueling. It is also of value in
locating downed flyers who carry small UHF
rescue beacons.

58