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CHAPTER 2
SCIENCE
DR HJ MOHD RIVAIE BIN MOHD ALI
PART A
SCIENCE &
TECHNOLOGY
SCIENCE
• the systematic study of the structure and behaviour of the physical and natural
world through observation, experimentation, and the testing of theories against the
evidence obtained.

Why something
happen??

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 SCIENTISM

• the opinion that science and the

scientific method are the best or only
way to render truth about the world
and reality.
• excessive belief in the power of
scientific knowledge and techniques

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SCIENCE VS SCIENTISM

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SCIENCE VS SCIENTISM

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SCIENCE VS SCIENTISM

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SCIENCE VS SCIENTISM

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The Danger of Scientism

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The Danger of Scientism

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The Danger of Scientism

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The Danger of Scientism

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TECHNOLOGY

HOW TO SOLVE ????

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AREAS OF GROWTH

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RICHARD BRANSON

refer Manual page 1 and

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RICHARD BRANSON

Science cannot explain why thing as they are

Why we are born as male or female. Why couple has single twins or triplet. Why
some phenomena (earthquake, flood) occurs here not there. 18
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Example of Limitation of Science

???

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 Truth in Science
The truth in science is not an absolute truth or not 100% true. The explanation of science is not a perfect explanation
(complete). A scientific theory is not last a long time, sooner or later it will be refuted (refuted/falsified) with another
better theories.

For example Antoine Lavoisier (1789) said that all acids contain oxygen. This theory was accepted for 20 years until it
was refuted/falsified by Humphry Davy (1810) who proved that sea salt acid (hydrochloric acid) does not contains
oxygen but only chlorine and hydrogen.

A good theory will survive as old as Newton's theory of gravity before it was improved by Einstein's theory of relativity.
Scientific theories will continue to change. Finding the truth of a scientific theory is like peeling an onion. Peeled layer
by layer. A scientist discovered the X1 theory, then disproved or improved by other scientists with theory X2, then
disproved or improved by other scientists with X3 theory. In other words the X3 explanation is better compared to X2
and X1. Where/when does it end? The truth of science has no end. As like peeling an onion layer upon layer, but no
seeds were found till the end.

A scientific theory is considered true as long as it is useful and can explain some phenomenon logically. The journey to
find a truer or better explanation, is an interesting and captivating adventure. Science is like a never-ending story. It is
an exciting journey for scientists. Spending his whole life studying about monkeys, ants, trees, stars and all creatures.
Because of the disconnection of the relationship between the object of this study and God (Allah), then what has been
studied is remain as creatures and did not meet the Khalik, who is the Creator of creation. 26
Truth in Science

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Assumptions in Science

Glenn Borchardt in The Scientific Worldview: Beyond

Newton and Einstein, discusses about 10 assumptions in
science that form a view of the scientific world.

Assumption those held by the majority of scientists are

materialism, causality, uncertainty, inseparability,
conservation, complimentary, irreversibility, infinity,
relativism and interconnection.

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Assumptions in Science Matter (the physical substance) is the fundamental reality
of the universe, and everything, including consciousness,
thoughts, emotions, and all phenomena, can ultimately
be explained by interactions of physical matter and its
properties. In other words, materialism holds that the
physical world is the only reality and that all mental,
emotional, or abstract phenomena are reducible to
physical processes, such as those occurring in the brain.

The quote:
Materialism: A belief that what is in this world is only The world, or reality, continues to exist independently of
matter. They do not believe in the existence of spirits, an observer’s perception. In other words, the existence of
ghosts, jinn and all things that are not matter. Feelings, the external world does not depend on whether someone
thoughts, dreams and all mental phenomena are is there to observe it. The world persists, with all its
chemical processes and reactions in the brain. Feeling objects, events, and phenomena, even in the absence of
sad or happy is because of a certain condition in the conscious beings to experience or perceive them. This
brain. Even ghosts is considered as gas. So physical concept challenges the idea that reality is only meaningful
things or matter is the only reality. All phenomena that or "real" when it is being observed. It is often contrasted
happens in this world can be explained by the reason with various philosophical perspectives that suggest the
for the reaction of matter. world is somehow tied to perception or consciousness.

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 Assumptions in Science
This perspective aligns with certain philosophical and
scientific views on causation and suggests that any
effect is the result of a multitude of contributing factors
or causes.

In essence, the idea that all effects have an infinite

Causality (also called causation, or cause and effect) is influence number of material causes challenges simplistic
by which one event, process, state, or object (a cause) notions of causation and highlights the complexity of
contributes to the production of another event, process, state, or the world we observe. It suggests that understanding
object (an effect) where the cause is partly responsible for the causation may require considering a multitude of
effect, and the effect is partly dependent on the cause. In factors and interactions, and that in many cases,
general, a process has many causes, which are also said to be causation is not reducible to a single, isolated cause.
causal factors for it. Hans Reichenbach - if we did not believe in This perspective is particularly relevant in fields such
causality, there would be no science. Science is looking for an as complexity science, where the behavior of complex
explanation of why or what is the cause of natural phenomena systems is studied, and in discussions about causation
occur. Because of the H1N1 virus, the result is swine flu. Because in philosophy and science.
of mosquitoes aedes, then the result is dengue fever. Because of
lack of vitamin A, the result is getting myopia. Because of gravity,
as a result. the stone falls to the ground. Because of the
medicine, the patients get well 30
 "It is impossible to know everything about anything": This part of the
Assumptions in Science statement acknowledges the inherent limits of human knowledge. No
matter how deeply one studies a subject or how expert they become, there
will always be aspects, nuances, or depths of knowledge that remain
beyond their comprehension. This is partly due to the vast complexity and
depth of many subjects, as well as the ever-evolving nature of knowledge
itself.

"But it is always possible to know more about anything": This part of the
statement highlights the idea that knowledge is not static; it is dynamic and
constantly expanding. Even in areas where our understanding is well-
developed, there is always room for further exploration, discovery, and
Nothing is certain but uncertainty. Science fails refinement. New information, insights, and perspectives can emerge over
whenever they cannot handle uncertainty. To be time, leading to a deeper and more comprehensive understanding of a
subject.
uncertain is one of the most uncomfortable of feelings.
Life seems to be a never-ending search for certainty, This statement underscores the humility of the pursuit of knowledge. It
punctuated by premature announcements that it has reminds us that no matter how much we learn and understand, there will
been found at last. always be more to explore and discover. It encourages a mindset of curiosity
and a commitment to lifelong learning. It also aligns with the idea that
knowledge is cumulative and that each generation builds upon the
Scientific have given up the search for the absolute knowledge and discoveries of those who came before.
and have accepted a relative instead. We no longer
seek perfect accuracy but only better accuracy and In summary, while it may be impossible for anyone to claim absolute
more knowledge. mastery or complete knowledge of any subject, the pursuit of knowledge is
an ongoing and limitless endeavor. There is always the potential to know
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more and to deepen our understanding of the world around us.
Assumptions in Science
"There is no motion without matter": This part of the statement
implies that for an object or system to exhibit motion, there must
be something with mass (matter) that is in motion. In classical
mechanics, this aligns with Newton's first law of motion, which
states that an object at rest tends to stay at rest, and an object in
motion tends to stay in motion unless acted upon by an external
force. Motion is typically described in terms of the movement of
The inseparability assumption states that there is no physical entities (matter) through space and time.
motion without matter and no matter without
motion. How could there be motion without having a "There is no matter without motion": This part of the statement
thing that did the moving. suggests that even what we consider to be "stationary" matter at
the macroscopic level, like a seemingly static object, is still
“Running” does not have existence in the sense that composed of particles (atoms and molecules) that are constantly
“legs” have existence. One can possess legs, but one in motion at the microscopic level. In other words, matter is not
cannot possess running. Running is what legs do; truly static; its constituent particles are in thermal motion due to
motion is what matter does. their kinetic energy. This idea is fundamental in the kinetic theory
of gases and underpins our understanding of temperature and
energy.

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Assumptions in Science
Conservation of Mass: This principle, often attributed to Antoine Lavoisier,
states that in a closed system, the total mass of a system remains constant
over time. In other words, matter cannot be created or destroyed; it can
only change forms or be rearranged. This concept is a foundational idea in
chemistry and is evident in chemical reactions, where the total mass of
reactants equals the total mass of products.

Conservation of Energy: This principle, derived from the law of

conservation of energy, states that energy cannot be created or destroyed
within a closed system; it can only change from one form to another. This
The Greek philosopher, Anaximander, asserted that means that the total energy of a closed system remains constant. Energy
matter is eternal and indestructible. In nature nothing can transform between kinetic energy (motion), potential energy (stored
remains constant. Everything is in a perpetual state of energy), thermal energy (heat), and various other forms, but the total
transformation, motion, and change. However, we energy remains conserved.
discover that nothing simply surges up out of nothing
When combined, these principles imply that the total mass and energy in
without having antecedents that existed before. a closed system are conserved. In many physical processes, matter can
Likewise, nothing ever disappears without a trace, in undergo changes, such as chemical reactions or phase transitions (solid to
the sense that it gives rise to absolutely nothing liquid, liquid to gas), while energy can change from one form to another
existing at later times. Everything comes from other (e.g., potential energy converting to kinetic energy). However, the total
things and gives rise to other things. amount of matter and energy in the system remains the same.
 Divergence: Divergence refers to the process by which objects or bodies
Assumptions in Science move away from each other. This can occur under the influence of various
forces, such as repulsive forces, gravitational forces, or other interactions.
For example, when two charged particles with the same charge are brought
close together, they will experience a repulsive force, causing them to
diverge or move apart.

Convergence: Convergence, on the other hand, describes the process by

which objects or bodies move toward each other. This can also be the result
of different forces, such as attractive forces or gravitational attraction. For
instance, celestial bodies like planets and stars are drawn toward each
Complementarity is the realization that a single thing, other due to the gravitational force, resulting in convergence.
when considered from different perspectives, can
In the context of physics, these principles are fundamental. They are often
appear to have different, or even contradictory, described by laws and equations that govern the behavior of objects in
properties. Complementarity alerts us that answering space and time. For example, Newton's law of universal gravitation
different kinds of questions can require radically describes how the gravitational attraction between two masses leads to
different approaches. convergence, while electromagnetic forces can lead to both convergence
and divergence depending on the charges involved.
Complementarity is both a theoretical and an
experimental. The complementarity principle holds In summary, the statement highlights a fundamental aspect of the physical
world, where objects or bodies can either move away from each other
that objects have certain pairs of complementary
(divergence) or come closer together (convergence) due to the forces and
properties which cannot all be observed or measured interactions that act upon them. These principles are central to our
simultaneously understanding of physics and the behavior of matter in the universe.
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Assumptions in Science
Irreversible process is one in which a system undergoes a
change, and it cannot be restored to its original state without
some net change occurring in the system or its surroundings.
Irreversible processes are prevalent in the real world and
involve factors such as friction, heat dissipation, and the one-
way flow of time. Examples of irreversible processes include
energy transfer as heat from a hot object to a cooler one, the
mixing of two substances, and the expansion of a gas into a
We are continually reminded of our lives that are
vacuum.
unmistakably irreversible. We lose teeth, hair, and
other body parts. Friends grow old and die.
So, while reversible processes are theoretical and can be
Instinctively we know that there is no traveling back in
used for simplification and analysis, many real-world
time although we may dream of it and try to recreate
processes are indeed irreversible due to the presence of
the conditions of a former happy period.
various dissipative forces and the second law of
thermodynamics, which states that the entropy (disorder) of
Things happened cannot be undone. If it could be
an isolated system tends to increase over time for most
undone, still the outcome is not the exact or similar
natural processes. Irreversible processes are essential to our
with the early one.
understanding of how the physical world works, and they are
encountered in various scientific and everyday situations.
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Assumptions in Science
It's important to note that the concept of infinity can
be challenging and may have different meanings in
various contexts:

Infinities in mathematics: Infinity is often used as a

mathematical concept to represent an unbounded
quantity or an endless process.
Infinities in physics: Physicists often encounter
infinities in certain mathematical equations, but
The universe is either infinite or finite. It is, of course, these are often indicative of the limitations of the
impossible to know for sure which of these possibilities really current mathematical models and may not
exists. We can only assume one or the other. Whenever necessarily imply actual physical infinities in the real
someone claims to have found the edge of the universe, world.
someone else is free to hypothesize objects beyond.
Experience in particle physics and astronomy teaches us the In summary, whether the universe is infinite or finite
utility of the Eighth Assumption of Science. And yet, each at both microscopic and macroscopic scales is a
time a supposed limit is reached, the absence of data allows complex and open question in the fields of
a choice between INFINITY and finity, its opposite. cosmology and quantum mechanics. Ongoing
research and advancements in our understanding of
the universe may lead to new insights into this
question in the future. 36
 It suggests that objects or entities in the world share both
Assumptions in Science common attributes that make them similar to other objects and
unique attributes that distinguish them from one another.

Similarity and Difference: In the study of categorization and

taxonomy, one of the central challenges is determining how
objects are grouped into categories or classes. Objects within a
category share common characteristics or features that make
them similar to one another. However, each object also
possesses individual characteristics that make it distinct or
dissimilar from others in the same category.
Science is relative not absolute. Refer to truth in
science Universals and Particulars: This concept relates to the
philosophical debate about universals and particulars.
All thinking involves the comparison of one thing Universals are properties or characteristics that are shared by
with another. We try to understand what we do not multiple objects or entities, while particulars are the specific
know by comparing it to what we do know. The world. instances of those properties in individual objects. For example,
No two of which are either completely dissimilar or the color red is a universal, and individual red objects
completely similar (particulars) may vary in shade and intensity.

Relativism is a philosophical position that asserts that truth, morality, or knowledge is not absolute but is instead dependent
on or relative to various factors, such as culture, individual perspectives, historical context, or societal norms. It suggests that
what is considered true, right, or valid can vary from one context or perspective to another.
Assumptions in Science

Interconnection refers to the state of being connected, linked,

or interrelated in some way. It implies that different elements,
entities, or systems are joined together or influence each
other in some manner.

All things are in unity with each other and must be Understanding interconnection is crucial in addressing
viewed as a part being interconnected. But to consider complex problems and challenges, as it highlights the need to
something as a part we must focus on it alone, consider the broader context and the potential consequences
momentarily suspending attention to its surroundings. of actions in interconnected systems. It also underscores the
Our thoughts necessarily must travel from parts to idea that everything is connected to some extent, and
wholes and back again. First viewing a thing as isolated changes or events in one part of a system can have
from its surroundings, and then viewing it as a part of implications for other parts. Recognizing and managing
them. interconnection is essential for making informed decisions
and solving complex issues in fields ranging from science and
Continuity within the object is not absolute—each object technology to economics and ecology.
contains concrete discontinuities within. Discontinuity
between the object and its surroundings is not absolute
—each contains things common to both 38
RICHARD BRANSON

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PART B
SCIENTIFIC
METHOD
WHAT IS SCIENTIFIC METHOD?

The scientific method is the process

of objectively establishing facts
through testing and
experimentation. The basic process
involves making an observation,
forming a hypothesis, making a
prediction, conducting an
experiment and finally analyzing
the results

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WHAT IS SCIENTIFIC METHOD?

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SCIENTIFIC METHOD (EXPLANATION)

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SCIENTIFIC METHOD (EXPLANATION)
Testing and experimentation. Tests whether the prediction is accurate
and thus your hypothesis is supported or not. It is important for your
experiment to be a fair test. Repeat experiments several times to make
sure that the first results weren't just an accident.

Analyze Data and Draw a Conclusion. Once the experiment is complete,

collect measurements and analyze them to see if they support the
hypothesis or not. Scientists often find that their predictions were not
accurate and their hypothesis was not supported, and in such cases they
will communicate the results of their experiment and then go back and
construct a new hypothesis and prediction based on the information they
learned during their experiment. This starts much of the process of the
scientific method over again. Even if they find that their hypothesis was
supported, they may want to test it again in a new way.

Finding and Reporting. Document the results of experiment. By sharing

the results with others, will increase the total body of knowledge
available. The experiment may have also led to other questions.
Professional scientists do almost exactly the same thing by publishing
their final report in a scientific journal or by presenting their results
during a talk at a scientific meeting. 44
Citation from Manual (Embah Maridjan)
What is a hypothesis?
A hypothesis is an unproven assumption or an intellectual guess. Children wearing shoes upside down may be because
they cannot distinguish between left and right feet.

This hypothesis or intellectual guess should be proven by experiment. Otherwise it is just considered a personal
opinion. So an experiment should be designed to prove the hypothesis. If we assume the hypothesis that children are
not yet familiar left right, then a test should be done to prove the hypothesis. We certainly cannot interview children
who are not yet good at speaking just as we cannot interview trees and ants. If the test results support the hypothesis
said, then we can propose it as an explanation.

These findings should be shared with other scientists through the presentation of papers and journal writing. The purpose
is to provide opportunities for other scientists to repeat the test with the aim of supporting or refuting it (refute/falsified). If
it turns out that the explanation is proven true by many scientists, then it becomes a theory or law. Those who get
recognition are certainly the first scientists to discover the theory or law. Because names are very important in science, the
results of this science experiment are not hidden. Even scientists are racing to publish the results of their research findings.
This is in contrast to technology which is inherently present secret

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 Characteristics of the Scientific Method Refu
tatio
n/Fa
l sific
atio
n

bi lity
Rep eata

RICHARD BRANSON

20XX refer Manual page 1 and

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 Characteristics of the Scientific Method
Reductionism
the practice of analysing and describing a complex phenomenon in terms of its simple or fundamental
constituents, especially when this is said to provide a sufficient explanation.

the practice of simplifying a complex idea, issue, condition, or the like, especially to the point of minimizing,

Reductionism is based on the scientific assumption of parsimony – that complex phenomenon should be
explained by the simplest underlying principles possible.

Breaking complicated behaviors down into small parts means that they can be scientifically tested. Then, over
time, explanations based on scientific evidence will emerge.

Explanations for the cause of mental illnesses are often reductionist. Genetics and neurochemical imbalances
are frequently highlighted as being the main cause of these disorders. In the case of schizophrenia, for
example, excess production of the neurotransmitter dopamine is seen as a possible cause.

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Scientific Methods Limitation
If it is misused it can cause more damage than good

Observational limitations: Scientists can only observe and study phenomena that are accessible to their instruments and
senses.

Models and theories: Scientific models and theories are based on current understanding and limited data, and are always
subject to revision or replacement as new information becomes available.

Uncertainty: Scientific knowledge is uncertain, and it is difficult to make absolute statements about the natural world.

Complexity: Many natural phenomena are very complex and difficult to study, and scientists may not have the tools or
understanding to fully explain them.

Funding and resources: Scientific research often requires significant resources and funding, which can limit the types of
projects that are undertaken and limit scientific progress.

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PLACEBO

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PLACEBO EFFECT IN SCIENCE

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Advantages / Disadvantages of Scientific
Method
Logic and can be seen

Repeatability and Objective

Self-correcting

Induction method

Reductionism

Techniques and tools affect test results

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PART C - SCIENTIFIC INQUIRY
(DEDUCTION VS INDUCTION)
DEDUCTIVE VS INDUCTIVE
What does deductive mean?
Deductive reasoning (also called deduction) involves starting
from a set of general premises and then drawing a specific
conclusion

What does inductive mean?

Inductive is used to describe reasoning that involves using
specific observations, such as observed patterns, to make a
general conclusion. This method is sometimes called induction.
Induction starts with a set of premises, based mainly on
experience or experimental evidence. It uses those premises to
generalize a conclusion.

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DEDUCTIVE VS INDUCTIVE

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DEDUCTIVE VS INDUCTIVE

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DEDUCTIVE VS INDUCTIVE

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DEDUCTIVE VS INDUCTIVE (FROM MANUAL)

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DEDUCTIVE VS INDUCTIVE

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DEDUCTIVE VS INDUCTIVE (FROM MANUAL)

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DEDUCTIVE VS INDUCTIVE

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DEDUCTIVE VS INDUCTIVE

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DEDUCTIVE VS INDUCTIVE

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DEDUCTION VS INDUCTION (LIMITATIONS)

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PLAN FOR PRODUCT LAUNCH

Planning Marketing Design Strategy Launch

Synergize scalable Disseminate Coordinate Foster holistically Deploy strategic

e-commerce standardized e-business superior networks with
metrics applications methodologies compelling
e-business needs

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PART D – Pengetahuan (tahu) vs Pengenalan (kenal)
(Know vs Acquaintance)
 Pengetahuan – tahu

Pengenalan - kenal

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To know is external, outward or visible only. Self-possessed unable to communicate about himself to those who want to
know him.

Do scientists who study trees, ants and monkeys only know or know the truth (acquaintance with ) the object of study. Is
a scientist who studies about the cause of a disease know or in acquaintance about the study virus. If a scientist found a
huge, very old tree in the middle of a Forest. By measuring the circumference of the tree, scientists have been able to
calculate his age is 200 years.

Is it exactly 200 years?

Who knows the true age of the tree? Who knows the real age of the tree? Maybe the tree itself and the
person who planted it. Then the people who planted it is already died and did not leave any
documents about it.

Other ways to calculate the age of the tree is possible by using the carbon dating method to measure
the half life of the tree. Because the tree can’t communicate with scientists in an understandable
language to tell his age the real one, then what was obtained earlier is only an estimate.

So the discovery of science is ambiguous, unclear, not very accurate and the truth is relative

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When we see an object, what we see and observe with our senses is called a phenomenon or appearance.
The reality of the object is actually called noumenon or reality.

I saw that A was a quiet person in the class (appearance). Is A really like that? I saw Kumari smiling at me. Is
it true that Kumari likes me?

Phenomenon (appearance) is not the same as noumenon (reality). The external (outside) is not the same as
the internal (inner).

Science only knows the external, outward and visible. Science only know the phenomenon (appearance)
of something. The truth or the actual thing is known as noumenon (reality). This is impossible to know.

Science can only know the phenomenon or appearance of a thing, what appears to us, what we can
observe. The thing as it is, the reality of the thing, we can't know.

Let's see the lights that are switched on. Is in fact really lit (on continuously). The lights we see lightning up
are actually a series of on-off-on-off with a frequency of 60Hz. Because of its fast rate, then it
only seems to light up. A fan with 3 blades will look like a sphere spinning at a very high speed.

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Our bodies were created by God (Allah), then destroyed and then re-created in the same
way with the original then deleted again. So our bodies experience a series of continuous
destruction and re-creation. Because of its very fast rate, it is visible and always there.

The entire contents of this world: the table, the book, the car undergo a continuous series
of creation-destruction-recreation. So basically everything in nature exists only for a short
time then is erased and recreated. What we look (appearance) with reality is not the same.
The table looks solid but in reality it is not so.

Science is only able to observe what is outside, whereas the true nature of something is
not possible for us to reach except for those who are given ma'rifah by God (Allah) So
science knows only about the external or the appearance.

Among the scientists and the objects he studies, there are hijabs, curtains, veils, walls that
prevents from knowing the true nature of the object being studied.
PART E – SCIENCE PARADIGM
 PARADIGM
Paradigm is the Greek word. According to the Oxford English Dictionary,
paradigm is "a pattern or model, an example". Paradigm is "a pattern of
thinking".

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PARADIGM
A paradigm refers to a model, pattern, or a
generally accepted set of beliefs, practices,
assumptions, or methodologies that guide
thinking within a particular field or
discipline. The term is often used to
describe a dominant way of
understanding and interpreting the world,
particularly in scientific, philosophical, or
cultural contexts.

The concept of "paradigm" has been

notably popularized by the philosopher
and historian of science Thomas Kuhn in
his book The Structure of Scientific
Revolutions (1962), where he used it to
describe a scientific framework or
worldview that guides research and
thought until it is replaced by a new
paradigm in what he called a "paradigm
shift." 79
 PARADIGM
To explain this concept we can compare a paradigm like a box or may also be likened to a mold or shell. In the
history of science there is a geocentric paradigm and a heliocentric paradigm.

Geocentric paradigm or Aristotle's paradigm belief that the center of this world is the earth. This paradigm has
laws and own beliefs. The practice of normal science at that adhere or stick with the paradigm at that point. Any
practice that is not in line with the holdings of this paradigm or that goes against the flow, is considered abnormal
(not normal science). In other words the true one is compatible (cohere) with the geocentric paradigm.

A paradigm will last for a long time until a shift occurs. When the scientific revolution occurred in Europe between
1500 - 1700, there is a paradigm shift from the geocentric paradigm to the heliocentric paradigm. The heliocentric
paradigm or the Copernican paradigm adheres to the sun as the center of nature. This paradigm has different laws
and beliefs than the earlier paradigm. Those who still adhere to the old paradigm are considered archaic and
outdated. The true one is compatible (cohere) with the heliocentric paradigm.

Every paradigm is a thinking in a frame or in a box or shell respectively. Thinking inside the box.
A paradigm shift occurs when they think outside the box or outside the frame or shell.

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PARADIGM

Modern science adheres to the understanding of empiricism and rationalism. Empiricism is developed in England
and was pioneered by Francis Bacon (1561-1626) under the umbrella of the association of The Royal Society. This
science is practical and experimental. Rationalism is developed in France. It is pioneered by Descartes (1596-1650)
and under the umbrella of the French Academy of Science.

Most of them are mathematicians. This science is abstract and mathematical. These thoughts or paradigms run
separately and compete with each other. Newton (1642-1727) was a scientist who combined both schools of
thought of empiricism and rationalism. A new school of thought or paradigm was born
combining mathematical science and experimental science (mathematical & experimental science). This paradigm
is developed in Germany and is called logical empiricism or logical paradigm positivism.
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 PARADIGM

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PARADIGM

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PARADIGM

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PARADIGM

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PARADIGM

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 PARADIGM

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 THANK YOU

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