Fundamentals of Electrical Engineering
POWER EQUATION
SINGLE PHASE:
POWER IN KW = VRMS × IRMS × PF ×10-3
POWER IN KVA = VRMS × IRMS×10-3
THREE PHASE:
POWER IN KW= 1.73 × VRMS (LINE) × IRMS(LINE)
×PF×10-3
= 3× VRMS (PHASE) × IRMS(PHASE)
×PF×10-3
POWER IN KVA= 1.73 × VRMS (LINE) × IRMS(LINE) ×10-3
= 3× VRMS (PHASE) × IRMS(PHASE)
×10-3
WHERE, PF = POWER FACTOR
STAR & DELTA CONNECTIONS EQUATIONS:
IN STAR CONNECTION:
V(LINE) = 1.73 × V (PHASE)
I(LINE) = I(PHASE)
IN DELTA CONNECTION:
V(LINE) = V (PHASE)
I(LINE) = 1.73 × I(PHASE)
R(DELTA) = 3 × R(STAR)
L(DELTA) = 3 × L(STAR)
C(DELTA) = (1/3) × C(STAR)
RESISTANCE (R), INDUCTANCE(L), CAPACITANCE (C)
IMPEDANCE OF R = R
IMPEDANCE OF L = jωL
IMPEDANCE OF C = -j /ωC
CURRENT THROUGH R IS IN PHASE WITH VOLTAGE
ACROSS R
CURRENT THROUGH L LAGS BY 90 DEGREES W.R.T.
VOLTAGE ACROSS L
CURRENT THROUGH C LEADS BY 90 DEGREES W.R.T.
VOLTAGE ACROSS C
POWER FACTOR COMPENSATION:
POWER CONSUMED = P (KW)
POWER FACTOR AT PRESENT = PF1
POWER FACTOR TO BE ACHIEVED = PF2
CAPACITOR KVAR REQUIRED
=KW X SIN ( COS -1(PF1)) - KW × SIN( COS-1(PF2))
PF1 PF2
POWER FACTOR COMPENSATION:
FOR EXAMPLE: IF,
POWER CONSUMED = 100 KW
POWER FACTOR AT PRESENT = 0.8
POWER FACTOR TO BE ACHIEVED = 0.95
CAPACITOR KVAR REQUIRED
= 100 × SIN ( COS -1(0.8)) - 100 × SIN ( COS -1 (0.95))
0.8 0.95
= 125 × SIN ( 36.869) – 105.26 × SIN ( 18.195)
= 74.99 – 32.87
= 42.12 KVAR
HENCE THE PF COMPENSATING CAPACITOR OF 42.12
KVAR IS REQUIRED.
FACTORS FOR SINE WAVE:
ROOT MEAN SQUARE (RMS) = 1
PEAK = 1.414
AVERAGE: 0.8998
CREAST FACTOR = PEAK ÷ RMS
= 1.414
FORM FACTOR = RMS ÷ AVERAGE
=1.111
h=n
∑ h2Ih2 / I12
h=1
K FACTOR = ------------------------ (K FACTOR = 1, IN CASE OF SINE
WAVE)
h=n
∑ Ih2/ I12
h=1
Motor Derating With Variable Freq. Drives :
CLASS B : No derating up to 40Hz
: 1.25% / Hz derating below 40Hz
CLASS F : No derating up to 25Hz
: 1% / Hz derating below 25Hz
Manufacturer’s catalogues to be referred during motor selection
Derating w.r.t. Altitude
Manufacturer’s catalogues to be referred during motor selection
4. Derating w.r.t. Voltage and Frequency Variation :
POWER DRAWN BY PUMP OR FAN
Power = Energy per second
= (Work done) per second
= (Force x distance) per second
= (Pressure x area) x (distance per second)
= Pressure x flow
Hence HP(Power) = P (pressure) x Q (flow) …… (1)
AFFINITY LAWS FOR PUMP
P = K1N² ............................................... (2)
Q = K2N ............................................... (3)
Where K1 & K2 are constants.
From (1), (2) and (3)
HP = PQ
= K N³ .......................................……. (4)
CALCULATION OF CURRENT DISTORTIONS
Total current distortion, in general defines the relationship
between the total harmonic current & fundamental current.
Total current distortion is the total harmonic distortion
given by,
Total harmonic distortion, THD = IH/ IL
Where, IL = The maximum load current
IH = (I2 ²+ I3² + … + I25 ²)½
i.e. THD (CURRENT) = (I2 ²+ I3² + … + I25 ²)½ x 100%
IL
The upper summation limit of H = 25 is chosen for
practical purpose.
EFFECTS OF HARMONICS ON KVA
EFFECTS OF HARMONICS ON POWER FACTOR
FULL LOAD AND PARTIAL LOAD EFFICIENCY-I
OUTPUT
EFFICIENCY = ------------
INPUT
INPUT – LOSSES
= -----------------------
INPUT
LOSSES = VARIABLE LOSSES + FIXED LOSSES
FULL LOAD AND PARTIAL LOAD EFFICIENCY-II
LET US ASSUME THAT VFD HAS 1% FIXED LOSSES AND
0.02% PER PERCENT OF RATED OUTPUT OF VARIABLE
LOSSES.
HENCE AT 100% OF RATED OUTPUT,
TOTAL LOSSES = 0.02 × 100 + 1
= 3%
HENCE EFFICIENCY 100% OF RATED OUTPUT
= (100 – 3) / 100 = 97%
EFFICIENCY AT 50% OF RATED OUTPUT
= (50 – 2) /50 = 96%
EFFICIENCY AT 25% OF RATED OUTPUT
= (25 – 1.5) /25 = 94%
FULL LOAD AND PARTIAL LOAD EFFICIENCY-III
LET US ASSUME THAT VFD HAS 5% FIXED LOSSES AND
0.02% PER PERCENT OF RATED OUTPUT OF VARIABLE
LOSSES.
HENCE AT 100% OF RATED OUTPUT,
TOTAL LOSSES = 0.02× 100 + 5
= 7%
HENCE EFFICIENCY 100% OF RATED OUTPUT
= (100 –7) / 100 = 93%
EFFICIENCY AT 50% OF RATED OUTPUT
= (50 – 6) /50 = 88%
EFFICIENCY AT 25% OF RATED OUTPUT
= (25 – 5.5) /25 = 78%
FULL LOAD AND PARTIAL LOAD EFFICIENCY-IV
FIXED LOSSED IN VFD:
CONTROL POWER
COOLING FANS
VARIABLE LOSSES IN VFD:
LOSSES IN RECTIFIER DIODES
LOSSES IN INVERTER IGBTS
LOSSES IN INPUT CHOKES (IF PROVIDED)
LOSSES IN OUTPUT CHOKE (IF PROVIDED)
LOSSES IN CABLES, SWITCHGEAR ETC.
TWO WINDING TRANSFORMER DIAGRAM
TWO WINDING TRANSFORMER
EQUATIONS:
V = 4.44 BFNA, FOR SINE-WAVE VOLTAGE
TRANSFORMER SATURATES WHEN V/F INCREASES
V1/V2 = N1/N2
I1/I2 = N2/N1
R2 = R1 × (N2/N1)2
L2 = L1 × (N2/N1)2
C2 = C1 × (N1/N2)2
POWER RATING
= V1 × I1 FOR 1 PHASE TRANSFORMER
= 1.73 × V1 × I1 FOR 3 PHASE TRANSFORMER
AUTO TRANSFORMER DIAGRAM
AUTO TRANSFORMER
THERE IS ONLY ONE WINDING, SPLIT INTO TWO PARTS
WITH N1 AND N2 TURNS.
IF OUTPUT IS ACROSS N2 AND OUTPUT CURRENT IS
I AND OUTPUT VOLTAGE IS V
CUTRRENT IN N1 WINDING
= I × N2/ (N1+N2)
CUTRRENT IN N2 WINDING
= I × N1/ (N1+N2)
VOLTAGE ACROSS N1 WINDING = V × N1 / (N1+N2)
VOLTAGE ACROSS N2 WINDING = V
POWER RATING OF TRANSFORMER
= 2×V ×N1/ (N1+N2)
HENCE IF N1= 0, TRANSFORMER RATING IS ZERO, OR
TRANSFORMER IS NOT REQUIRED.
CURRENT TRANSFORMER DIAGRAM
How to calculate transformer rating?
Minimum sensing voltage required at
secondary= 1 Volts
primary current = 10A to 100A
secondary current = 0.1A (with turns ratio
of 100 at 10A primary current)
hence burden resistance required at
secondary = 1 volts / 0.1 A
R= 10 ohms
hence secondary VA rating required
= V2/R at highest sensing voltage
= 100/ 10 (10V at 100A primary current)
= 10 VA