AC POWER ANALYSIS

-Instantaneous & Ave. Power

-Power Factor & Apparent Power
-Complex Power
-Power Factor Correction

12/29/25 BPB22303 1
 Introduction
• AC circuit analysis focused mainly on
calculating VOLTAGE and CURRENT.
• This chapter concerned about the POWER
ANALYSIS.
• Power analysis is of paramount
importance.
• We will begin by defining and deriving
instantaneous power and average power
and later other power concepts.
12/29/25 BPB22303 2
 Instantaneous and Ave Power
• The Instantaneous power p(t) absorbed by an element is the
product of the instantaneous voltage v(t) across the element and the
instantaneous current i(t) through it.
p(t) = v(t)i(t)
• The instantaneous power (in watts) is the power at any instant of
time.
• It is the rate at which an element absorbs energy.

12/29/25 BPB22303 3
• Consider Fig. 1 below, let :
v(t) = Vm cos(ωt+v ) ……………(1)
i(t) = Im cos(ωt+  i ) …………..(2)

• The instantaneous power absorbed by the circuit is :

p(t) = v(t)i(t) = Vm cos(ωt+ v ) cos(ωt+ i ) …………….. (3)

• We apply TRIGONOMETRIC IDENTITY :

cosA cosB = ½ [cos(A-B) + cos(A+B)] …………….(4)

• Apply this trigonometric identity, we can express equ(3) as :

   
p(t) = ½ VmImcos( v - i) + ½ VmImcos( 2ωt + v + i ) ………. (5)

Fig. 1

12/29/25 BPB22303 4
• Equ(5) below shows that the instantaneous power has TWO PARTS.

• The 1st part is CONSTANT or TIME INDEPENDENT ( Its value depends on the
phase difference between the voltage and the current ).

• The 2nd part is a SINUSOIDAL FUNCTION whose frequency is 2ω ( which is

twice the angular frequency of the voltage or current ).

• A sketch of p(t) in Equ(5) is shown in Fig. 2 below.

Fig. 2

12/29/25 BPB22303 5
• From Fig. 2, we can observe 2 things :

(1). p(t) is PERIODIC, p(t) = p(t + To) and has a period of To = T/2.
(2). p(t) is POSITIVE for some part of each cycle and negative for
the rest of the cycle.

• Conclusions :
When p(t) is POSITIVE, power is absorbed by the circuit.
When p(t) is NEGATIVE, power is absorbed by the source. ( power is
transfer from the circuit to the source. This is possible coz of the storage elements ( C
and L ) in the cct ).

• The instantaneous power changes with time and is therefore difficult

to measure.

• The AVERAGE POWER is more convenient to measure.

12/29/25 BPB22303 6
 Average Power
T
 p(t )
0

 

 

12/29/25 BPB22303 7
• A resistive load (R) absorbs power at all
times.

• A Reactive load (L or C) absorbs zero

average power.

12/29/25 BPB22303 8
 Example 1
• Given that
v(t) = 120cos(377t + 45º) V
i(t) = 10cos(377t - 10º) A
Find the instantaneous power and the average power
absorbed by the passive linear network of Fig.A below.
Fig.A

12/29/25 BPB22303 9
 Solution 1

12/29/25 BPB22303 10
 Exercise 1
• Calculate the Instantaneous Power and the
Average Power absorbed by the Passive linear
network of Fig. A in the previous example, if
given :
v(t) = 80cos(10t + 20º) V
i(t) = 15sin(10t + 60º) A
Answers : p(t) = 385.7 + 600cos(20t +80º) W
P = 385.7 W

12/29/25 BPB22303 11
 Example 2

• Calculate the average power absorbed by

an impedance Z = 30 – j70 Ω , when a
voltage V = 120 ∟0º is applied across it.

12/29/25 BPB22303 12
 Solution 2

12/29/25 BPB22303 13
 Exercise 2

• A current I = 10∟30º flow through an impedance

Z = 20∟-22° , find the average power delivered
to the impedance.

Answer : 927.2 W

12/29/25 BPB22303 14
 Example 3
• For the circuit shown in Fig.B below, find the
average power supplied by the source and the
average power absorbed by the resistor.

Fig. B

12/29/25 BPB22303 15
 Solution 3

12/29/25 BPB22303 16
 Solution 3

12/29/25 BPB22303 17
 Exercise 3
• In the circuit of Fig.C below, calculate the average power absorbed by
the resistor and inductor. Find the average power supplied by the
voltage source.
( Answer : 9.6W, 0W, 9.6W )

Fig. C

12/29/25 BPB22303 18
 APPARENT POWER
&
POWER FACTOR

12/29/25 BPB22303 19
 Apparent Power

• Apparent Power, S, is an important quantity since a.c.

apparatus, such as generators, transformers and cables,
is usually rated in Voltamperes rather than in Watts.

• The allowable output of such apparatus is usually limited

not by mechanical stress but by temperature rise, and
hence by the losses in the device.

• The losses are determined by the voltage and current

and are almost independent of the power factor.

12/29/25 BPB22303 20
 Apparent Power

•Thus the amount of electrical equipment installed to supply

a certain load is essentially determined by the voltamperes
of the load rather than by the power alone.

•The rating of a machine is defined as the maximum

Apparent Power that it is designed to carry continuously
without overheating.

12/29/25 BPB22303 21
• P=VRMSIRMScos(ϴv-ϴi)=Scos(ϴv-ϴi) ……………(1)
• Equ(1) shows a new term has been added to the
equation:
S = VrmsIrms

• The average power ( refer equ(1) above ) is a product of

two terms. The product VrmsIrms is known as the Apparent
Power S.
• The factor cos(ϴv-ϴi) is called the power factor ( pf ).

• The Apparent Power (in VA) is the product of the rms

values of voltage and current.
12/29/25 BPB22303 22
 Power Factor
• The Power Factor is dimensionless, since it is the ratio of the
Average Power to the Apparent Power,
P
pf S=  v - i ) ……………. (2)
= cos(
• The angle ( v -  i ) is called the POWER FACTOR ANGLE, since it
is the angle whose cosine is the power factor.
• The power factor angle is equal to the angle of the load impedance
if V is the voltage across the load and I is the current through it.
This is evident from the fact that
Vmθv Vm
Z = V/IIm=i = v  i ……………. (3)
Im
Vrms Vrms v  i
• Or Z = V/I = Irms = Irms ……………. (4)

12/29/25 BPB22303 23
• The Power Factor is the cosine of the phase difference
between voltage and current.

• It is also the cosine of the angle of the load impedance.

• The value of pf ranges between ZERO and UNITY.

• For a PURELY RESISTIVE LOAD, the voltage and

current are IN PHASE, so that and pf = 1.
This implies that the apparent power is equal to the
average power.

12/29/25 BPB22303 24
12/29/25 BPB22303 25
 Example 1
• A series-connected load draws a current
i(t) = 4cos(100 t + 10°) when the applied
voltage is v(t) = 120cos(100 t - 20°)V.
Find the apparent power and the power
factor of the load. Determine the element
values that form the series-connected
load.

12/29/25 BPB22303 26
 Solution 1

12/29/25 BPB22303 27
 Solution 1

12/29/25 BPB22303 28
 Exercise 1
• Obtain the power factor and the apparent power
of a load whose impedance is Z=60+j40  when
the applied voltage is v(t) = 150cos(377t + 10°)V.

Answer : 0.832 lagging, 156 VA

12/29/25 BPB22303 29
 COMPLEX POWER

12/29/25 BPB22303 30
 COMPLEX POWER

12/29/25 BPB22303 31
 COMPLEX POWER

12/29/25 BPB22303 32
 Example 2

12/29/25 BPB22303 33
 SOLUTION 2

12/29/25 BPB22303 34
 SOLUTION 2

12/29/25 BPB22303 35
 SOLUTION 2

12/29/25 BPB22303 36
 EXERCISE 2

12/29/25 BPB22303 37
 POWER FACTOR
CORRECTION

12/29/25 BPB22303 38
 Power Factor Correction
• Most domestic loads ( such as washing
machines, air-conds, and refrigerators ) and
industrial loads ( such as induction motors ) are
INDUCTIVE and operate at a low LAGGING
power factor ( S lags P or I lags V ).
• Although the inductive nature of the load cannot
be changed, we can INCREASE its POWER
FACTOR.
• THE PROCESS OF INCREASING THE POWER FACTOR WITHOUT
ALTERING THE VOLTAGE OR CURRENT TO THE ORIGINAL LOAD IS
KNOWN AS POWER FACTOR CORRECTION.

12/29/25 BPB22303 39
• Since most loads are inductive, a load’s
power factor is improved or corrected by
deliberately installing a CAPACITOR in
PARALLEL with the load as shown on the
whiteboard.

12/29/25 BPB22303 40
 Power Factor Correction
• Purpose : To allow high efficient of current
delivered to the load.

• Defination: To adjust the power factor to

near unity ( 1 ).
OR
To bring the the current as
closely in phase with the voltage
as possible. So that the phase
angle is made as small as possible.
12/29/25 BPB22303 41
 Method 1
• If the load is INDUCTIVE

To correct the power factor is by placing

CAPACITANCE in parallel with the load or
put on parallel with the primary or
secondary of the main transformer which
produces a LEADING CURRENT.

12/29/25 BPB22303 42
 Power Factor Correction

Figure (a). Shows the original inductive load

Figure (b). Shows the inductive load with
improved power factor
12/29/25 BPB22303 43
The effect of adding the capacitor can be illustrated using either the
power triangle or the phasor diagram of the currents involved.

Figure (c)

• Figure (c) shows the latter, where it is assumed that the circuit in Fig
(a) has a power factor of cos θ1
• While the one in Fig (b) has a power factor of cos θ2
• It is evident from Fig (c) that adding the capacitor has caused the
phase angle between the supplied voltage and current to reduce
from θ1 to θ2, thereby increasing power factor.
12/29/25 BPB22303 44
• With the same supplied voltage, the circuit in Fig
(a) draws larger current IL than the current I
drawn by the circuit in Fig (b)

• Power companies charge more for larger

currents, because they result in increased power
losses ( by a squared factor, since P = IL2R ).

12/29/25 BPB22303 45
•Therefore, it is beneficial to both the power company and
the consumer that every effort is made to minimize current
level.

•Or keep the power factor as close to unity as possible.

•By choosing a suitable size for the capacitor, the current

can be made to be completely in phase with the voltage,
implying unity power factor.

12/29/25 BPB22303 46
 Method 2
• If the load is CAPACITIVE

To adjust the power factor is by placing an

INDUCTANCE in parallel with the load or
put parallel with the primary or secondary
of the main transformer which produces a
LAGGING CURRENT.

12/29/25 BPB22303 47
 Example 3

12/29/25 BPB22303 48
 Solution 3

12/29/25 BPB22303 49
 Solution 3

12/29/25 BPB22303 50
 EXERCISE 3

12/29/25 BPB22303 51
 Q&A
Next topic: Two Port Network

12/29/25 BPB22303 52