Life's
Chemical
Basis
Building Blocks of Matter
Atoms: The Building
Blocks
• Atoms: The smallest units of matter.
• Composed of subatomic particles:
• Protons (positive charge)
• Neutrons (no charge)
• Electrons (negative charge)
• Nucleus: Contains protons and
neutrons.
• Electrons orbit the nucleus.
Elements:
Defined by
Protons
• Element: A
substance composed
of only one type of
atom.
• Atomic number:
Number of protons
in an atom's nucleus.
• Defines the element.
• Each element has a
unique symbol (e.g.,
H for hydrogen, C
for carbon).
Isotopes: Variations of an Element
• Isotopes: Atoms of the same
element with different numbers of
neutrons.
• Mass number: Total number of
protons and neutrons in an atom's
nucleus.
• Radioisotopes: Unstable isotopes
that undergo radioactive decay.
• Applications: Radiometric dating,
medical imaging.
Electron
Energy Levels
and Orbitals
• Electrons occupy
specific energy levels
around the nucleus.
• Orbitals: Regions
within energy levels
where electrons are
most likely to be
found.
• The first orbital can
hold a maximum of
two electrons.
• Electrons fill orbitals
from lowest to highest
energy levels.
Chemical Stability and
Vacancies
• Atoms with filled outer shells are chemically stable
(e.g., noble gases).
• Atoms with vacancies in their outer shells tend to be
chemically reactive.
• Free radicals: Atoms with unpaired electrons, highly
reactive.
• Ions: Atoms that have gained or lost electrons.
• Cations: Positively charged ions (lost electrons).
• Anions: Negatively charged ions (gained electrons).
• Ionic bonds: Formed between oppositely charged
ions.
Chemical Bonds:
Holding Atoms
Together
• Chemical bonds: Attractive forces that hold atoms
together.
• Ionic bonds: Formed by the attraction between
oppositely charged ions.
• Covalent bonds: Formed by the sharing of electrons
between atoms.
• Single bond: Sharing one pair of electrons.
• Double bond: Sharing two pairs of electrons.
• Triple bond: Sharing three pairs of electrons.
• Polar covalent bonds: Unequal sharing of electrons due to
electronegativity differences.
• Nonpolar covalent bonds: Equal sharing of electrons.
Electronegativity and
Polarity
• Electronegativity: The ability of an atom to attract
electrons towards itself.
• Differences in electronegativity create polar bonds.
• Polar molecules have regions of positive and negative
charge.
• Hydrogen bonds: Weak attractions between a hydrogen
atom in one polar molecule and an electronegative
atom (usually oxygen or nitrogen) in another.
• Important for:
• Water properties (cohesion, surface tension)
• Stabilizing the structure of DNA and proteins.
Water: The
Universal
Solvent
• Water is a polar
molecule.
• Excellent solvent
for hydrophilic
substances (polar
and ionic).
• Hydrophobic
substances
(nonpolar) do not
dissolve in water.
Cohesion and Surface Tension
• Cohesion: Attraction between
water molecules due to
hydrogen bonding.
• Surface tension: Water
molecules at the surface are
more strongly attracted to
each other than to the air
above. (Takes a lot of energy
– heat to evaporate water)
Water Stabilizes
Temperature
• High specific heat capacity:
Water resists changes in
temperature.
• Hydrogen bonds absorb heat
energy, stabilizing
temperatures.
• Ice floats on water due to its
lower density.
Acids and Bases
• Acids: Substances that donate hydrogen ions (H+) in
water.
• Bases: Substances that accept hydrogen ions (H+) in
water.
• pH scale: Measures the concentration of hydrogen
ions in a solution. A Logarithmic Scale: Each unit on
the pH scale represents a tenfold change in hydrogen
ion concentration.
• pH 7: Neutral (pure water)
• pH below 7: Acidic
• pH above 7: Basic (alkaline)
Buffers: Maintaining pH
• Strong acids: Completely dissociate
in water (e.g., hydrochloric acid).
• Weak acids: Partially dissociate in
water (e.g., carbonic acid
• Buffers: Resist changes in pH by
accepting or donating hydrogen
ions.
• Bicarbonate buffer system:
Important in maintaining blood
pH.).
Maintaining pH: Essential for Life
• Most biological molecules function Ocean Acidification: A Global
properly within a narrow pH range. Concern
• Changes in pH can disrupt cellular • Increased carbon dioxide levels in
processes. the atmosphere lead to ocean
• Examples: acidification.
• Enzyme activity • Carbon dioxide dissolves in
seawater, forming carbonic acid.
• Cell signaling
• Ocean acidification threatens
• Maintaining proper protein marine life, particularly organisms
structure with calcium carbonate shells.
Key Takeaways
• Atoms are the building blocks of matter.
• Chemical bonds hold atoms together to form molecules.
• Water is essential for life due to its unique properties.
• Maintaining proper pH is crucial for biological processes.
Q&A