“You have to be very careful if you don’t

know where you’re going, because you

might not get there.”

Dr. Joe Essien

Capability Maturity
Model (CMM)

 A bench-mark for measuring the

maturity of an organization’s
software process
 CMM defines 5 levels of process
maturity based on certain Key
Process Areas (KPA)
CMM Levels
Level 5 – Optimizing (< 1%) Level 2 – Repeatable
-- process change management (~ 15%)
-- technology change management -- software
-- defect prevention configuration
management
Level 4 – Managed (< 5%)
-- software quality
-- software quality management assurance
-- quantitative process management -- software project
Level 3 – Defined (< 10%) tracking and
-- peer reviews oversight
-- intergroup coordination -- software project
-- software product engineering planning
-- integrated software management -- requirements
management
-- training program
-- organization process definition Level 1 – Initial
(~ 70%)
-- organization process focus
SDLC Model

A framework that describes the

activities performed at each stage of
a software development project.
Waterfall Model
 Requirements – defines
needed information,
function, behavior,
performance and
interfaces.
 Design – data structures,
software architecture,
interface representations,
algorithmic details.
 Implementation – source
code, database, user
documentation, testing.
Waterfall Strengths

 Easy to understand, easy to use

 Provides structure to inexperienced
staff
 Milestones are well understood
 Sets requirements stability
 Good for management control (plan,
staff, track)
 Works well when quality is more
important than cost or schedule
Waterfall Deficiencies
 All requirements must be known upfront
 Deliverables created for each phase are
considered frozen – inhibits flexibility
 Can give a false impression of progress
 Does not reflect problem-solving nature
of software development – iterations of
phases
 Integration is one big bang at the end
 Little opportunity for customer to
preview the system (until it may be too
late)
When to use the
Waterfall Model
 Requirements are very well known
 Product definition is stable
 Technology is understood
 New version of an existing product
 Porting an existing product to a new platform.

 High risk for new systems because of

specification and
design problems.
 Low risk for well-understood developments
using familiar technology.
V-Shaped SDLC Model

 A variant of the
Waterfall that
emphasizes the
verification and
validation of the
product.
 Testing of the product
is planned in parallel
with a corresponding
phase of development
 V-Shaped Steps  Production, operation and
maintenance – provide for
enhancement and
 Project and Requirements corrections
Planning – allocate
resources  System and acceptance
testing – check the entire
 Product Requirements software system in its
and Specification environment
Analysis – complete
specification of the  Integration and Testing –
software system check that modules
interconnect correctly
 Architecture or High-
 Unit testing – check that
Level Design – defines each module acts as
how software functions expected
fulfill the design
 Coding – transform
 Detailed Design – algorithms into software
develop algorithms for
each architectural
component
V-Shaped Strengths

 Emphasize planning for verification

and validation of the product in early
stages of product development
 Each deliverable must be testable
 Project management can track
progress by milestones
 Easy to use
V-Shaped Weaknesses

 Does not easily handle concurrent

events
 Does not handle iterations or phases
 Does not easily handle dynamic
changes in requirements
 Does not contain risk analysis
activities
When to use the V-Shaped
Model
 Excellent choice for systems
requiring high reliability – hospital
patient control applications
 All requirements are known up-front
 When it can be modified to handle
changing requirements beyond
analysis phase
 Solution and technology are known
Protoyping: Basic Steps
 Identify basic requirements
 Including input and output info
 Details (e.g., security) generally ignored
 Develop initial prototype
 UI first
 Review
 Customers/end –users review and give
feedback
 Revise and enhance the prototype &
specs
 Negotiation about scope of contract may be
necessary
Dimensions of
prototyping
 Horizontal prototype
 Broad view of entire system/sub-system
 Focus is on user interaction more than low-
level system functionality (e.g. , databsae
access)
 Useful for:
 Confirmation of UI requirements and system
scope
 Demonstration version of the system to obtain
buy-in from business/customers
 Develop preliminary estimates of development
time, cost, effort
Dimensions of
Prototyping
 Vertical prototype
 More complete elaboration of a single
sub-system or function
 Useful for:
 Obtaining detailed requirements for a given
function
 Refining database design
 Obtaining info on system interface needs
 Clarifying complex requirements by drilling
down to actual system functionality
Types of prototyping

 Throwaway /rapid/close-ended prototyping

 Creation of a model that will be discarded
rather than becoming part of the final
delivered software
 After preliminary requirements gathering, used
to visually show the users what their
requirements may look like when implemented
 Focus is on quickly developing the model
 not on good programming practices
 Can Wizard of Oz things
Fidelity of Protype

 Low-fidelity
 Paper/pencil
 Mimics the functionality, but does not look
like it
Fidelity of Protype
 Medium to High-fidelity
 GUI builder
 “Click dummy” prototype – looks like the
system, but does not provide the
functionality
 Or provide functionality, but have it be
general and not linked to specific data

 [Link]
lpk

 [Link]
v=5oLlmNbxap4&feature=related
Throwaway Prototyping
steps
 Write preliminary requirements
 Design the prototype
 User experiences/uses the prototype,
specifies new requirements
 Repeat if necessary
 Write the final requirements
 Develop the real products
Evolutionary Prototyping

 Aka breadboard prototyping

 Goal is to build a very robust prototype
in a structured manner and constantly
refine it
 The evolutionary prototype forms the
heart of the new system and is added to
and refined
 Allow the development team to add
features or make changes that were not
conceived in the initial requirements
Evolutionary Prototyping
Model
 Developers build a prototype during
the requirements phase
 Prototype is evaluated by end users
 Users give corrective feedback
 Developers further refine the
prototype
 When the user is satisfied, the
prototype code is brought up to the
standards needed for a final product.
EP Steps
 A preliminary project plan is developed
 An partial high-level paper model is created
 The model is source for a partial
requirements specification
 A prototype is built with basic and critical
attributes
 The designer builds
 the database
 user interface
 algorithmic functions
 The designer demonstrates the prototype,
the user evaluates for problems and
suggests improvements.
 This loop continues until the user is satisfied
EP Strengths
 Customers can “see” the system
requirements as they are being gathered
 Developers learn from customers
 A more accurate end product
 Unexpected requirements accommodated
 Allows for flexible design and development
 Steady, visible signs of progress produced
 Interaction with the prototype stimulates
awareness of additional needed functionality
Incremental prototyping

 Final product built as separate

prototypes
 At the end, the prototypes are
merged into a final design
Extreme Prototyping

 Often used for web applications

 Development broken down into 3 phases,
each based on the preceding 1
1. Static prototype consisting of HTML pages
2. Screen are programmed and fully functional
using a simulated services layer
 Fully functional UI is developed with little
regard to the services, other than their contract
3. Services are implemented
Prototyping advantages
 Reduced time and cost
 Can improve the quality of requirements and
specifications provided to developers
 Early determination of what the user really wants
can result in faster and less expensive software
 Improved/increased user involvement
 User can see and interact with the prototype,
allowing them to provide better/more complete
feedback and specs
 Misunderstandings/miscommunications
revealed
 Final product more likely to satisfy their desired
look/feel/performance
Disadvantages of
prototyping 1
 Insufficient analysis
 Focus on limited prototype can distract
developers from analyzing complete
project
 May overlook better solutions
 Conversion of limited prototypes into poorly
engineered final projects that are hard to
maintain
 Limited functionality may not scale well if
used as the basis of a final deliverable
 May not be noticed if developers too focused
on building prototype as a model
Disadvantages of
prototyping

2
User confusion of prototype and
finished system
 Users can think that a prototype
(intended to be thrown away) is actually a
final system that needs to be polished
 Unaware of the scope of programming
needed to give prototype robust
functionality
 Users can become attached to features
included in prototype for consideration
and then removed from final specification
Disadvantages of
prototyping

3
Developer attachment to prototype
 If spend a great deal of time/effort to
produce, may become attached
 Might try to attempt to convert a limited
prototype into a final system
 Bad if the prototype does not have an
appropriate underlying architecture
Disadvantages of
prototyping 4
 Excessive development time of the
prototype
 Prototyping supposed to be done quickly
 If developers lose sight of this, can try to
build a prototype that is too complex
 For throw away prototypes, the benefits
realized from the prototype (precise
requirements) may not offset the time spent
in developing the prototype – expected
productivity reduced
 Users can be stuck in debates over prototype
details and hold up development process
Disadvantages of
prototyping 5
 Expense of implementing prototyping
 Start up costs of prototyping may be high
 Expensive to change development
methodologies in place (re-training, re-tooling)
 Slow development if proper training not in
place
 High expectations for productivity unrealistic if
insufficient recognition of the learning curve
 Lower productivity can result if overlook the
need to develop corporate and project specific
underlying structure to support the technology
Best uses of prototyping

 Most beneficial for systems that will

have many interactions with end
users
 The greater the interaction between
the computer and the user, the
greater the benefit of building a quick
system for the user to play with
 Especially good for designing good
human-computer interfaces
Spiral SDLC Model
 Adds risk
analysis, and
4gl RAD
prototyping to
the waterfall
model
 Each cycle
involves the
same sequence
of steps as the
waterfall
process model
Determine objectives
Evaluate alternatives
alternatives and identify, resolve risks
constraints Risk
analysis
Risk
analysis
Risk
analysis Opera-
Prototype 3 tional
Prototype 2 protoype
Risk
REVIEW analy sis Proto-
type 1
Requirements plan Simulations, models, benchmarks
Life-cycle plan Concept of
Operation S/W
requirements Product
design Detailed
Requirement design
Development
plan validation Code
Design Unit test
Integration
and test plan V&V Integr ation
Plan next phase test
Acceptance
Service test Develop, verify
next-level product
Spiral Quadrant: Determine
objectives, alternatives and
constraints
 Objectives: functionality, performance,
hardware/software interface, critical
success factors, etc.
 Alternatives: build, reuse, buy, sub-
contract, etc.
 Constraints: cost, schedule, interface,
etc.
Spiral Quadrant: Evaluate
alternatives, identify and resolve
risks
 Study alternatives relative to objectives
and constraints
 Identify risks (lack of experience, new
technology, tight schedules, poor
process, etc.
 Resolve risks (evaluate if money could
be lost by continuing system
development
Spiral Quadrant: Develop next-
level product
 Typical activites:
 Create a design
 Review design
 Develop code
 Inspect code
 Test product
Spiral Quadrant: Plan next
phase
 Typical activities
 Develop project plan
 Develop configuration management
plan
 Develop a test plan
 Develop an installation plan
Spiral Model Strengths

 Provides early indication of insurmountable

risks, without much cost
 Users see the system early because of rapid
prototyping tools
 Critical high-risk functions are developed
first
 The design does not have to be perfect
 Users can be closely tied to all lifecycle steps
 Early and frequent feedback from users
 Cumulative costs assessed frequently
 Spiral Model Weaknesses
 Time spent for evaluating risks too large for
small or low-risk projects
 Time spent planning, resetting objectives, doing
risk analysis and prototyping may be excessive
 The model is complex
 Risk assessment expertise is required
 Spiral may continue indefinitely
 Developers must be reassigned during non-
development phase activities
 May be hard to define objective, verifiable
milestones that indicate readiness to proceed
through the next iteration
When to use Spiral Model
 When creation of a prototype is appropriate
 When costs and risk evaluation is important
 For medium to high-risk projects
 Long-term project commitment unwise
because of potential changes to economic
priorities
 Users are unsure of their needs
 Requirements are complex
 New product line
 Significant changes are expected (research
and exploration)
Role Playing Game for
SE’s
 [Link]
v=kkkl3LucxTY&feature=related
Housekeeping

 Individual Assignment:
 Post mortem + peer review
 Final presentations/demos
 July 26/28 - 25 minutes per
 ~8 minute presentation
 ~10 minute demo
 ~7 minutes questions
 Course evaluations this Thursday
(4:05 pm)
The Rise and Fall of
Waterfall
 [Link]
v=X1c2--
sP3o0&NR=1&feature=fvwp
 Warning: bad language at 3:50!
(hands over ears if easily offended!)
Agile SDLC’s

 Speed up or bypass one or more life

cycle phases
 Usually less formal and reduced
scope
 Used for time-critical applications
 Used in organizations that employ
disciplined methods
Some Agile Methods
 Rapid Application Development (RAD)
 Incremental SDLC
 Scrum
 Extreme Programming (XP)
 Adaptive Software Development (ASD)
 Feature Driven Development (FDD)
 Crystal Clear
 Dynamic Software Development
Method (DSDM)
 Rational Unify Process (RUP)
Agile vs Waterfall
Propaganda
 [Link]
v=gDDO3ob-4ZY&feature=related
 Rapid Application Model
(RAD)
 Requirements planning phase (a workshop
utilizing structured discussion of business
problems)
 User description phase – automated tools
capture information from users
 Construction phase – productivity tools,
such as code generators, screen
generators, etc. inside a time-box. (“Do
until done”)
 Cutover phase -- installation of the system,
user acceptance testing and user training
Requirements Planning
Phase
 Combines elements of the system
planning and systems analysis phases of
the System Development Life Cycle
(SDLC).
 Users, managers, and IT staff members
discuss and agree on business needs,
project scope, constraints, and system
requirements.
 It ends when the team agrees on the key
issues and obtains management
authorization to continue.
 User Design Phase
 Users interact with systems analysts and
develop models and prototypes that represent
all system processes, inputs, and outputs.
 Typically use a combination of Joint Application
Development (JAD) techniques and CASE tools
to translate user needs into working models.
 A continuous interactive process that allows
users to understand, modify, and eventually
approve a working model of the system that
meets their needs.
JAD Techniques

 [Link]
Joint_application_design

CASE Tools
 [Link]
Computer-
aided_software_engineering
Construction Phase

 Focuses on program and application

development task similar to the SDLC.
 However, users continue to
participate and can still suggest
changes or improvements as actual
screens or reports are developed.
 Its tasks are programming and
application development, coding, unit-
integration, and system testing.
Cutover Phase

 Resembles the final tasks in the SDLC

implementation phase.
 Compared with traditional methods,
the entire process is compressed. As a
result, the new system is built,
delivered, and placed in operation
much sooner.
 Tasks are data conversion, full-scale
testing, system changeover, user
training.
RAD Strengths
 Reduced cycle time and improved
productivity with fewer people means lower
costs
 Time-box approach mitigates cost and
schedule risk
 Customer involved throughout the complete
cycle minimizes risk of not achieving
customer satisfaction and business needs
 Focus moves from documentation to code
(WYSIWYG).
 Uses modeling concepts to capture
information about business, data, and
processes.
RAD Weaknesses

 Accelerated development process

must give quick responses to the
user
 Risk of never achieving closure
 Hard to use with legacy systems
 Requires a system that can be
modularized
 Developers and customers must be
committed to rapid-fire activities in
an abbreviated time frame.
When to use RAD

 Reasonably well-known requirements

 User involved throughout the life
cycle
 Project can be time-boxed
 Functionality delivered in increments
 High performance not required
 Low technical risks
 System can be modularized
Incremental SDLC Model
 Construct a partial
implementation of a total
system
 Then slowly add increased
functionality
 The incremental model
prioritizes requirements of
the system and then
implements them in
groups.
 Each subsequent release of
the system adds function
to the previous release,
until all designed
functionality has been
implemented.
 Incremental Model
Strengths
 Develop high-risk or major functions first
 Each release delivers an operational product
 Customer can respond to each build
 Uses “divide and conquer” breakdown of
tasks
 Lowers initial delivery cost
 Initial product delivery is faster
 Customers get important functionality early
 Risk of changing requirements is reduced
Incremental Model
Weaknesses
 Requires good planning and design
 Requires early definition of a
complete and fully functional
system to allow for the definition of
increments
 Well-defined module interfaces are
required (some will be developed
long before others)
 Total cost of the complete system is
not lower
When to use the Incremental
Model
 Risk, funding, schedule, program complexity,
or need for early realization of benefits.
 Most of the requirements are known up-front
but are expected to evolve over time
 A need to get basic functionality to the
market early
 On projects which have lengthy
development schedules
 On a project with new technology
Scrum:
 Scrum in 13 seconds:
 [Link]
v=9DKM9HcRnZ8&feature=related
 Scrum in 10 minutes:
 [Link]
v=Q5k7a9YEoUI
 More scrum slides:
 [Link]
system/presentation/file/129/Getting-Agile-
[Link]?1276712017
 Scalability of scrum addressed on slides 33-35
Scrum advantages
 Agile scrum helps the company in
saving time and money.
 Scrum methodology enables projects
where the business requirements
documentation is hard to quantify to
be successfully developed.
 Fast moving, cutting edge
developments can be quickly coded
and tested using this method, as a
mistake can be easily rectified.
Scrum advantages
 It is a lightly controlled method which
insists on frequent updating of the
progress in work through regular
meetings. Thus there is clear visibility of
the project development.
 Like any other agile methodology, this is
also iterative in nature. It requires
continuous feedback from the user.
 Due to short sprints and constant
feedback, it becomes easier to cope with
the changes.
Scrum advantages
 Daily meetings make it possible to
measure individual productivity. This
leads to the improvement in the
productivity of each of the team
members.
 Issues are identified well in advance
through the daily meetings and hence
can be resolved in speedily
 It is easier to deliver a quality product
in a scheduled time.
Scrum advantages
 Agile Scrum can work with any
technology/ programming language
but is particularly useful for fast
moving web 2.0 or new media
projects.
 The overhead cost in terms of
process and management is minimal
thus leading to a quicker, cheaper
result.
Scrum disadvantages
 Agile Scrum is one of the leading causes of
scope creep because unless there is a
definite end date, the project management
stakeholders will be tempted to keep
demanding new functionality is delivered.
 If a task is not well defined, estimating
project costs and time will not be accurate.
In such a case, the task can be spread over
several sprints.
 If the team members are not committed,
the project will either never complete or fail.
 Scrum disadvantages
 It is good for small, fast moving projects as it
works well only with small team.
 This methodology needs experienced team
members only. If the team consists of people
who are novices, the project cannot be
completed in time.
 Scrum works well when the Scrum Master trusts
the team they are managing. If they practice
too strict control over the team members, it can
be extremely frustrating for them, leading to
demoralisation and the failure of the project.
Scrum disadvantages

 If any of the team members leave

during a development it can have a
huge inverse effect on the project
development
 Project quality management is hard
to implement and quantify unless the
test team are able to conduct
regression testing after each sprint.