Copyright © 2016 Ramez Elmasri and Shamkant B.

Navathe
 CHAPTER 8

İlişkisel Cebir ve
İlişkisel Analiz (plus QBE- Appendix C)

Copyright © 2016 Ramez Elmasri and Shamkant B. Navathe Slide 8- 2

Bölüm İçeriği
 İlişkisel Cebir
 Tekli İlişkisel İşlemler
 Küme teorisinden ilişkisel cebir işlemleri
 İkili İlişkisel İşlemler
 Ek İlişkisel İşlemler
 İlişkisel Cebirde Sorgu Örnekleri
 İlişkisel Analiz
 Tuple İlişkisel Analiz
 Etki Alanı İlişkisel Analizi
 Örnek Veritabanı Uygulaması (ŞİRKET)
 QBE diline genel bakış (ek D)

Copyright © 2016 Ramez Elmasri and Shamkant B. Navathe Slide 8- 3

İlişkisel Cebire Genel Bakış
 İlişkisel cebir, ilişkisel model için temel
işlemler kümesidir
 Bu işlemler, kullanıcının temel alma
isteklerini (veya sorgularını) belirtmesini
sağlar
 Bir işlemin sonucu, bir veya daha fazla girdi
ilişkisinden oluşturulmuş olabilecek yeni bir
ilişkidir
 Bu özellik cebiri "kapalı" yapar (ilişkisel
cebirdeki tüm nesneler ilişkidir)

Copyright © 2016 Ramez Elmasri and Shamkant B. Navathe Slide 8- 4

İlişkisel Cebire Genel Bakış (devamı)
 Cebir işlemleri böylece yeni ilişkiler üretir
 Bunlar, aynı cebirin işlemleri kullanılarak
daha fazla manipüle edilebilir
 İlişkisel cebir işlemleri dizisi, ilişkisel bir
cebir ifadesi oluşturur
 İlişkisel bir cebir ifadesinin sonucu aynı
zamanda bir veritabanı sorgusunun (veya
alma isteğinin) sonucunu temsil eden bir
ilişkidir

Copyright © 2016 Ramez Elmasri and Shamkant B. Navathe Slide 8- 5

Cebirin Kökenlerinin Kısa Tarihi
 Muhammed ibn Musa el-Harezmi (MS 800-847) –
Fas'tan değişkenlerin aritmetiği hakkında al-jabr adlı
bir kitap yazdı.

Kitap Latince'ye çevrildi.

Başlığı (al-jabr) Cebir'e adını vermiştir.

 El-Harezmi, değişkenleri "şey" olarak adlandırdı


İspanyolca "şey" kelimesini "xay" olarak çevirmiştir ("x",
İspanya'da "sh" idi).

Zamanla bu kelime x olarak kısaltılmıştır.

 Algoritma kelimesi nereden geliyor?


Algoritma "el-Harezmi" den geliyor

Kaynak: PBS
([Link]

Copyright © 2016 Ramez Elmasri and Shamkant B. Navathe Slide 8- 6

İlişkisel Cebire Genel Bakış
 İlişkisel Cebir birkaç işlem grubundan oluşur

Tekli İlişkisel İşlemler

SELECT (symbol:  (sigma))

PROJECT (symbol: (pi))

RENAME (symbol:  (rho))

Küme teorisinden ilişkisel cebir işlemleri

UNION (  ), INTERSECTION ( ), DIFFERENCE (or MINUS, – )

CARTESIAN PRODUCT ( x )

İkili İlişkisel İşlemler

JOIN (several variations of JOIN exist)

DIVISION

Ek İlişkisel İşlemler

OUTER JOINS, OUTER UNION

AGGREGATE FUNCTIONS (These compute summary of
information: for example, SUM, COUNT, AVG, MIN, MAX)

Copyright © 2016 Ramez Elmasri and Shamkant B. Navathe Slide 8- 7

ŞİRKET için Veritabanı Durumu
 Aşağıda tartışılan tüm örnekler, burada gösterilen ŞİRKET
veritabanına atıfta bulunur.

Copyright © 2016 Ramez Elmasri and Shamkant B. Navathe Slide 8- 8

Tekli İlişkisel İşlemler: SELECT

The SELECT operation (denoted by  (sigma)) is used to select a
subset of the tuples from a relation based on a selection
condition.
 The selection condition acts as a filter
 Keeps only those tuples that satisfy the qualifying
condition
 Tuples satisfying the condition are selected whereas the
other tuples are discarded (filtered out)
 Examples:
 Select the EMPLOYEE tuples whose department number is 4:

 DNO = 4 (EMPLOYEE)
 Select the employee tuples whose salary is greater than
$30,000:
 SALARY > 30,000 (EMPLOYEE)

Copyright © 2016 Ramez Elmasri and Shamkant B. Navathe Slide 8- 9

Unary Relational Operations: SELECT

In general, the select operation is denoted
by  <selection condition>(R) where

the symbol  (sigma) is used to denote the select
operator

the selection condition is a Boolean (conditional)
expression specified on the attributes of relation R

tuples that make the condition true are selected

appear in the result of the operation

tuples that make the condition false are filtered
out

discarded from the result of the operation

Copyright © 2016 Ramez Elmasri and Shamkant B. Navathe Slide 8- 10

Unary Relational Operations: SELECT
(continued)
 SELECT Operation Properties

The SELECT operation  <selection condition>(R) produces a relation S
that has the same schema (same attributes) as R

SELECT  is commutative:

 <condition1>( < condition2> (R)) =  <condition2> ( < condition1> (R))

Because of commutativity property, a cascade (sequence) of
SELECT operations may be applied in any order:

<cond1>(<cond2> (<cond3> (R)) = <cond2> (<cond3> (<cond1> ( R)))

A cascade of SELECT operations may be replaced by a single
selection with a conjunction of all the conditions:

<cond1>(< cond2> (<cond3>(R)) =  <cond1> AND < cond2> AND < cond3>(R)))

The number of tuples in the result of a SELECT is less than
(or equal to) the number of tuples in the input relation R

Copyright © 2016 Ramez Elmasri and Shamkant B. Navathe Slide 8- 11

The following query results refer to
this database state

Copyright © 2016 Ramez Elmasri and Shamkant B. Navathe Slide 8- 12

Unary Relational Operations:
PROJECT
 PROJECT Operation is denoted by (pi)
 This operation keeps certain columns
(attributes) from a relation and discards the
other columns.
 PROJECT creates a vertical partitioning

The list of specified columns (attributes) is kept
in each tuple

The other attributes in each tuple are discarded
 Example: To list each employee’s first and
last name and salary, the following is used:
LNAME, FNAME,SALARY(EMPLOYEE)

Copyright © 2016 Ramez Elmasri and Shamkant B. Navathe Slide 8- 13

Unary Relational Operations:
PROJECT (cont.)

 The general form of the project operation is:

<attribute list>(R)

 (pi) is the symbol used to represent the project
operation

<attribute list> is the desired list of attributes
from relation R.
 The project operation removes any
duplicate tuples

This is because the result of the project
operation must be a set of tuples

Mathematical sets do not allow duplicate
elements.

Copyright © 2016 Ramez Elmasri and Shamkant B. Navathe Slide 8- 14

Unary Relational Operations:
PROJECT (contd.)
 PROJECT Operation Properties
 The number of tuples in the result of
projection <list>(R) is always less or equal to
the number of tuples in R

If the list of attributes includes a key of
R, then the number of tuples in the
result of PROJECT is equal to the number
of tuples in R
 PROJECT is not commutative
  <list1> ( <list2> (R) ) =  <list1> (R) as long as
<list2> contains the attributes in <list1>
Copyright © 2016 Ramez Elmasri and Shamkant B. Navathe Slide 8- 15
Examples of applying SELECT and
PROJECT operations

Copyright © 2016 Ramez Elmasri and Shamkant B. Navathe Slide 8- 16

Relational Algebra Expressions
 We may want to apply several relational
algebra operations one after the other
 Either we can write the operations as a
single relational algebra expression by
nesting the operations, or
 We can apply one operation at a time and
create intermediate result relations.
 In the latter case, we must give names
to the relations that hold the
intermediate results.
Copyright © 2016 Ramez Elmasri and Shamkant B. Navathe Slide 8- 17
Single expression versus sequence
of relational operations (Example)
 To retrieve the first name, last name, and salary of
all employees who work in department number 5,
we must apply a select and a project operation
 We can write a single relational algebra expression
as follows:
FNAME, LNAME, SALARY( DNO=5(EMPLOYEE))
 

 OR We can explicitly show the sequence of

operations, giving a name to each intermediate
relation:
 DEP5_EMPS  
DNO=5(EMPLOYEE)

 RESULT   FNAME, LNAME, SALARY (DEP5_EMPS)

Copyright © 2016 Ramez Elmasri and Shamkant B. Navathe Slide 8- 18

Unary Relational Operations:
RENAME
 The RENAME operator is denoted by  (rho)
 In some cases, we may want to rename the
attributes of a relation or the relation name
or both
 Useful when a query requires multiple

operations
 Necessary in some cases (see JOIN

operation later)

Copyright © 2016 Ramez Elmasri and Shamkant B. Navathe Slide 8- 19

Unary Relational Operations:
RENAME (continued)
 The general RENAME operation  can be
expressed by any of the following forms:
 S (B1, B2, …, Bn )(R) changes both:

the relation name to S, and

the column (attribute) names to B1, B1, …..Bn
 S(R) changes:

the relation name only to S
 (B1, B2, …, Bn )(R) changes:

the column (attribute) names only to B1, B1,
…..Bn

Copyright © 2016 Ramez Elmasri and Shamkant B. Navathe Slide 8- 20

Unary Relational Operations:
RENAME (continued)
 For convenience, we also use a shorthand for
renaming attributes in an intermediate relation:

If we write:
• RESULT  
FNAME, LNAME, SALARY (DEP5_EMPS)
• RESULT will have the same attribute names as

DEP5_EMPS (same attributes as EMPLOYEE)

• If we write:
RESULT (F, M, L, S, B, A, SX, SAL, SU, DNO) 
•

RESULT (F.M.L.S.B,A,SX,SAL,SU, DNO)(DEP5_EMPS)

• The 10 attributes of DEP5_EMPS are renamed to

F, M, L, S, B, A, SX, SAL, SU, DNO, respectively

Note: the  symbol is an assignment operator

Copyright © 2016 Ramez Elmasri and Shamkant B. Navathe Slide 8- 21

Example of applying multiple
operations and RENAME

Copyright © 2016 Ramez Elmasri and Shamkant B. Navathe Slide 8- 22

Relational Algebra Operations from
Set Theory: UNION
 UNION Operation
 Binary operation, denoted by 
 The result of R  S, is a relation that
includes all tuples that are either in R or
in S or in both R and S
 Duplicate tuples are eliminated
 The two operand relations R and S must be
“type compatible” (or UNION compatible)

R and S must have same number of
attributes

Each pair of corresponding attributes must
be type compatible (have same or
compatible domains)
Copyright © 2016 Ramez Elmasri and Shamkant B. Navathe Slide 8- 23
Relational Algebra Operations from
Set Theory: UNION
 Example:

To retrieve the social security numbers of all
employees who either work in department 5 (RESULT1
below) or directly supervise an employee who works in
department 5 (RESULT2 below)

We can use the UNION operation as follows:
DEP5_EMPS  DNO=5 (EMPLOYEE)
RESULT1   SSN(DEP5_EMPS)
RESULT2(SSN)  SUPERSSN(DEP5_EMPS)
RESULT  RESULT1  RESULT2

The union operation produces the tuples that are in
either RESULT1 or RESULT2 or both

Copyright © 2016 Ramez Elmasri and Shamkant B. Navathe Slide 8- 24

Figure 8.3 Result of the UNION
operation RESULT ← RESULT1 ∪ RESULT2.

Copyright © 2016 Ramez Elmasri and Shamkant B. Navathe Slide 8- 25

Relational Algebra Operations from
Set Theory
 Type Compatibility of operands is required for
the binary set operation UNION , (also for
INTERSECTION , and SET DIFFERENCE –, see next
slides)
 R1(A1, A2, ..., An) and R2(B1, B2, ..., Bn) are type
compatible if:
 they have the same number of attributes, and
 the domains of corresponding attributes are type
compatible (i.e. dom(Ai)=dom(Bi) for i=1, 2, ..., n).
 The resulting relation for R1R2 (also for R1R2, or
R1–R2, see next slides) has the same attribute
names as the first operand relation R1 (by
convention)

Copyright © 2016 Ramez Elmasri and Shamkant B. Navathe Slide 8- 26

Relational Algebra Operations from
Set Theory: INTERSECTION
 INTERSECTION is denoted by 
 The result of the operation R  S, is a
relation that includes all tuples that
are in both R and S
 The attribute names in the result
will be the same as the attribute
names in R
 The two operand relations R and S
must be “type compatible”
Copyright © 2016 Ramez Elmasri and Shamkant B. Navathe Slide 8- 27
Relational Algebra Operations from
Set Theory: SET DIFFERENCE (cont.)
 SET DIFFERENCE (also called MINUS or
EXCEPT) is denoted by –
 The result of R – S, is a relation that
includes all tuples that are in R but not
in S

The attribute names in the result will be
the same as the attribute names in R
 The two operand relations R and S
must be “type compatible”

Copyright © 2016 Ramez Elmasri and Shamkant B. Navathe Slide 8- 28

Example to illustrate the result of
UNION, INTERSECT, and DIFFERENCE

Copyright © 2016 Ramez Elmasri and Shamkant B. Navathe Slide 8- 29

Some properties of UNION,
INTERSECT, and DIFFERENCE
 Notice that both union and intersection are
commutative operations; that is
 R  S = S  R, and R  S = S  R
 Both union and intersection can be treated as n-
ary operations applicable to any number of
relations as both are associative operations; that is
 R  (S  T) = (R  S)  T
 (R  S)  T = R  (S  T)
 The minus operation is not commutative; that
is, in general
 R–S≠S–R

Copyright © 2016 Ramez Elmasri and Shamkant B. Navathe Slide 8- 30

Relational Algebra Operations from
Set Theory: CARTESIAN PRODUCT
 CARTESIAN (or CROSS) PRODUCT Operation
 This operation is used to combine tuples from two
relations in a combinatorial fashion.
 Denoted by R(A1, A2, . . ., An) x S(B1, B2, . . ., Bm)
 Result is a relation Q with degree n + m attributes:

Q(A1, A2, . . ., An, B1, B2, . . ., Bm), in that order.
 The resulting relation state has one tuple for each
combination of tuples—one from R and one from S.
 Hence, if R has nR tuples (denoted as |R| = nR ), and
S has nS tuples, then R x S will have n R * nS tuples.
 The two operands do NOT have to be "type
compatible”

Copyright © 2016 Ramez Elmasri and Shamkant B. Navathe Slide 8- 31

Relational Algebra Operations from
Set Theory: CARTESIAN PRODUCT
(cont.)
 Generally, CROSS PRODUCT is not a
meaningful operation
 Can become meaningful when followed by
other operations
 Example (not meaningful):

FEMALE_EMPS   SEX=’F’(EMPLOYEE)

EMPNAMES   FNAME, LNAME, SSN (FEMALE_EMPS)
 EMP_DEPENDENTS  EMPNAMES x DEPENDENT
 EMP_DEPENDENTS will contain every combination
of EMPNAMES and DEPENDENT
 whether or not they are actually related

Copyright © 2016 Ramez Elmasri and Shamkant B. Navathe Slide 8- 32

Relational Algebra Operations from
Set Theory: CARTESIAN PRODUCT
(cont.)
 To keep only combinations where the
DEPENDENT is related to the EMPLOYEE, we
add a SELECT operation as follows
 Example (meaningful):

FEMALE_EMPS   SEX=’F’(EMPLOYEE)

EMPNAMES   FNAME, LNAME, SSN (FEMALE_EMPS)
 EMP_DEPENDENTS  EMPNAMES x DEPENDENT

ACTUAL_DEPS   SSN=ESSN(EMP_DEPENDENTS)

RESULT   FNAME, LNAME, DEPENDENT_NAME (ACTUAL_DEPS)
 RESULT will now contain the name of female
employees and their dependents

Copyright © 2016 Ramez Elmasri and Shamkant B. Navathe Slide 8- 33

Figure 8.5 The CARTESIAN PRODUCT
(CROSS PRODUCT) operation.

continued on next slide

Copyright © 2016 Ramez Elmasri and Shamkant B. Navathe Slide 8- 34

Figure 8.5 (continued) The CARTESIAN
PRODUCT (CROSS PRODUCT) operation.

continued on next slide

Copyright © 2016 Ramez Elmasri and Shamkant B. Navathe Slide 8- 35

Figure 8.5 (continued) The CARTESIAN
PRODUCT (CROSS PRODUCT) operation.

Copyright © 2016 Ramez Elmasri and Shamkant B. Navathe Slide 8- 36

Binary Relational Operations:
JOIN
 JOIN Operation (denoted by )

The sequence of CARTESIAN PRODUCT followed by
SELECT is used quite commonly to identify and
select related tuples from two relations

A special operation, called JOIN combines this
sequence into a single operation

This operation is very important for any relational
database with more than a single relation, because it
allows us combine related tuples from various
relations

The general form of a join operation on two relations
R(A1, A2, . . ., An) and S(B1, B2, . . ., Bm) is:
R <join condition>S

where R and S can be any relations that result from
general relational algebra expressions.

Copyright © 2016 Ramez Elmasri and Shamkant B. Navathe Slide 8- 37

Binary Relational Operations: JOIN
(cont.)
 Example: Suppose that we want to retrieve the name
of the manager of each department.

To get the manager’s name, we need to combine each
DEPARTMENT tuple with the EMPLOYEE tuple whose
SSN value matches the MGRSSN value in the
department tuple.

We do this by using the join operation.


DEPT_MGR  DEPARTMENT MGRSSN=SSN EMPLOYEE
 MGRSSN=SSN is the join condition

Combines each department record with the employee
who manages the department

The join condition can also be specified as
[Link]= [Link]

Copyright © 2016 Ramez Elmasri and Shamkant B. Navathe Slide 8- 38

Figure 8.6 Result of the JOIN operation
DEPT_MGR ← DEPARTMENTMgr_ssn=SsnEMPLOYEE.

Copyright © 2016 Ramez Elmasri and Shamkant B. Navathe Slide 8- 39

Some properties of JOIN
 Consider the following JOIN operation:

R(A1, A2, . . ., An) S(B1, B2, . . ., Bm)
[Link]=[Link]

Result is a relation Q with degree n + m
attributes:

Q(A1, A2, . . ., An, B1, B2, . . ., Bm), in that order.

The resulting relation state has one tuple for each
combination of tuples—r from R and s from S, but only if
they satisfy the join condition r[Ai]=s[Bj]
 Hence, if R has nR tuples, and S has nS tuples, then the
join result will generally have less than nR * nS tuples.

Only related tuples (based on the join condition) will
appear in the result

Copyright © 2016 Ramez Elmasri and Shamkant B. Navathe Slide 8- 40

Some properties of JOIN
 The general case of JOIN operation is called a
Theta-join: R S
theta
 The join condition is called theta
 Theta can be any general boolean expression
on the attributes of R and S; for example:
 [Link]<[Link] AND ([Link]=[Link] OR [Link]<[Link])
 Most join conditions involve one or more
equality conditions “AND”ed together; for
example:
 [Link]=[Link] AND [Link]=[Link] AND [Link]=[Link]

Copyright © 2016 Ramez Elmasri and Shamkant B. Navathe Slide 8- 41

Binary Relational Operations:
EQUIJOIN
 EQUIJOIN Operation
 The most common use of join involves
join conditions with equality
comparisons only
 Such a join, where the only comparison
operator used is =, is called an EQUIJOIN.
 In the result of an EQUIJOIN we always have
one or more pairs of attributes (whose names
need not be identical) that have identical
values in every tuple.
 The JOIN seen in the previous example was an
EQUIJOIN.
Copyright © 2016 Ramez Elmasri and Shamkant B. Navathe Slide 8- 42
Binary Relational Operations:
NATURAL JOIN Operation
 NATURAL JOIN Operation
 Another variation of JOIN called NATURAL JOIN —
denoted by * — was created to get rid of the second
(superfluous) attribute in an EQUIJOIN condition.

because one of each pair of attributes with identical
values is superfluous
 The standard definition of natural join requires
that the two join attributes, or each pair of
corresponding join attributes, have the same
name in both relations
 If this is not the case, a renaming operation
is applied first.

Copyright © 2016 Ramez Elmasri and Shamkant B. Navathe Slide 8- 43

Binary Relational Operations
NATURAL JOIN (continued)
 Example: To apply a natural join on the DNUMBER attributes
of DEPARTMENT and DEPT_LOCATIONS, it is sufficient to
write:
 DEPT_LOCS  DEPARTMENT * DEPT_LOCATIONS
 Only attribute with the same name is DNUMBER
 An implicit join condition is created based on this attribute:
[Link]=DEPT_LOCATIONS.DNUMBER

 Another example: Q  R(A,B,C,D) * S(C,D,E)

 The implicit join condition includes each pair of

attributes with the same name, “AND”ed together:


R.C=S.C AND R.D.S.D
 Result keeps only one attribute of each such pair:

Q(A,B,C,D,E)

Copyright © 2016 Ramez Elmasri and Shamkant B. Navathe Slide 8- 44

Example of NATURAL JOIN operation

Copyright © 2016 Ramez Elmasri and Shamkant B. Navathe Slide 8- 45

Complete Set of Relational
Operations
 The set of operations including SELECT ,
PROJECT  , UNION , DIFFERENCE  ,
RENAME , and CARTESIAN PRODUCT X is
called a complete set because any other
relational algebra expression can be
expressed by a combination of these five
operations.
 For example:
 R  S = (R  S ) – ((R  S)  (S  R))
 R <join condition>S =  <join condition> (R X S)

Copyright © 2016 Ramez Elmasri and Shamkant B. Navathe Slide 8- 46

Binary Relational Operations:
DIVISION
 DIVISION Operation
 The division operation is applied to two relations
 R(Z)  S(X), where X subset Z. Let Y = Z - X
(and hence Z = X  Y); that is, let Y be the set of
attributes of R that are not attributes of S.

 The result of DIVISION is a relation T(Y) that includes a

tuple t if tuples tR appear in R with tR [Y] = t, and with

tR [X] = ts for every tuple ts in S.

 For a tuple t to appear in the result T of the DIVISION,

the values in t must appear in R in combination with
every tuple in S.

Copyright © 2016 Ramez Elmasri and Shamkant B. Navathe Slide 8- 47

Example of DIVISION

Copyright © 2016 Ramez Elmasri and Shamkant B. Navathe Slide 8- 48

Table 8.1 Operations of Relational
Algebra

continued on next slide

Copyright © 2016 Ramez Elmasri and Shamkant B. Navathe Slide 8- 49

Table 8.1 Operations of Relational
Algebra (continued)

Copyright © 2016 Ramez Elmasri and Shamkant B. Navathe Slide 8- 50

Query Tree Notation
 Query Tree
 An internal data structure to represent a query
 Standard technique for estimating the work involved in

executing the query, the generation of intermediate

results, and the optimization of execution
 Nodes stand for operations like selection, projection,

join, renaming, division, ….

 Leaf nodes represent base relations

 A tree gives a good visual feel of the complexity of the

query and the operations involved

 Algebraic Query Optimization consists of rewriting the

query or modifying the query tree into an equivalent

tree.
(see Chapter 15)

Copyright © 2016 Ramez Elmasri and Shamkant B. Navathe Slide 8- 51

 Example of Query Tree

Copyright © 2016 Ramez Elmasri and Shamkant B. Navathe Slide 8- 52

Additional Relational Operations:
Aggregate Functions and Grouping
 A type of request that cannot be expressed in the
basic relational algebra is to specify mathematical
aggregate functions on collections of values
from the database.
 Examples of such functions include retrieving the
average or total salary of all employees or the
total number of employee tuples.

These functions are used in simple statistical queries
that summarize information from the database
tuples.
 Common functions applied to collections of
numeric values include

SUM, AVERAGE, MAXIMUM, and MINIMUM.
 The COUNT function is used for counting tuples
or values.
Copyright © 2016 Ramez Elmasri and Shamkant B. Navathe Slide 8- 53
Aggregate Function Operation
 Use of the Aggregate Functional operation ℱ
 ℱMAX Salary (EMPLOYEE) retrieves the maximum salary
value from the EMPLOYEE relation
 ℱMIN Salary (EMPLOYEE) retrieves the minimum Salary
value from the EMPLOYEE relation
 ℱSUM Salary (EMPLOYEE) retrieves the sum of the Salary
from the EMPLOYEE relation
 ℱCOUNT SSN, AVERAGE Salary (EMPLOYEE) computes the count
(number) of employees and their average salary

Note: count just counts the number of rows,
without removing duplicates

Copyright © 2016 Ramez Elmasri and Shamkant B. Navathe Slide 8- 54

Using Grouping with Aggregation
 The previous examples all summarized one or more
attributes for a set of tuples

Maximum Salary or Count (number of) Ssn
 Grouping can be combined with Aggregate Functions
 Example: For each department, retrieve the
DNO, COUNT SSN, and AVERAGE SALARY
 A variation of aggregate operation ℱ allows this:

Grouping attribute placed to left of symbol

Aggregate functions to right of symbol
DNO ℱCOUNT SSN, AVERAGE Salary (EMPLOYEE)


 Above operation groups employees by DNO

(department number) and computes the count of
employees and average salary per department

Copyright © 2016 Ramez Elmasri and Shamkant B. Navathe Slide 8- 55

Figure 8.10 The aggregate function
operation.

a. ρR(Dno, No_of_employees, Average_sal)(Dno ℑ COUNT Ssn, AVERAGE Salary

(EMPLOYEE)).
b. Dno ℑ alary(EMPLOYEE).
c. ℑ COUNT Ssn, AVERAGE Salary(EMPLOYEE).

Copyright © 2016 Ramez Elmasri and Shamkant B. Navathe Slide 8- 56

Figure 7.1a Results of GROUP BY
and HAVING (in SQL). Q24.

continued on next slide

Copyright © 2016 Ramez Elmasri and Shamkant B. Navathe Slide 8- 57

Additional Relational Operations
(continued)
 Recursive Closure Operations

Another type of operation that, in
general, cannot be specified in the basic
original relational algebra is recursive
closure.

This operation is applied to a recursive
relationship.

An example of a recursive operation is to
retrieve all SUPERVISEES of an EMPLOYEE
e at all levels — that is, all EMPLOYEE e’
directly supervised by e; all employees
e’’ directly supervised by each employee
e’; all employees e’’’ directly supervised
by each employee e’’; and so on.
Copyright © 2016 Ramez Elmasri and Shamkant B. Navathe Slide 8- 58
Additional Relational Operations
(continued)
 Although it is possible to retrieve
employees at each level and then take their
union, we cannot, in general, specify a
query such as “retrieve the supervisees of
‘James Borg’ at all levels” without utilizing a
looping mechanism.
 The SQL3 standard includes syntax for
recursive closure.

Copyright © 2016 Ramez Elmasri and Shamkant B. Navathe Slide 8- 59

Figure 8.11 A two-level recursive
query.

Copyright © 2016 Ramez Elmasri and Shamkant B. Navathe Slide 8- 60

Additional Relational Operations
(continued)
 The OUTER JOIN Operation
 In NATURAL JOIN and EQUIJOIN, tuples without
a matching (or related) tuple are eliminated
from the join result

Tuples with null in the join attributes are also
eliminated

This amounts to loss of information.
 A set of operations, called OUTER joins, can be
used when we want to keep all the tuples in R,
or all those in S, or all those in both relations
in the result of the join, regardless of whether
or not they have matching tuples in the other
relation.

Copyright © 2016 Ramez Elmasri and Shamkant B. Navathe Slide 8- 61

Additional Relational Operations
(continued)
 The left outer join operation keeps every
tuple in the first or left relation R in R S;
if no matching tuple is found in S, then the
attributes of S in the join result are filled or
“padded” with null values.
 A similar operation, right outer join, keeps
every tuple in the second or right relation
S in the result of R S.
 A third operation, full outer join, denoted
by keeps all tuples in both the left
and the right relations when no matching
tuples are found, padding them with null
values as needed.
Copyright © 2016 Ramez Elmasri and Shamkant B. Navathe Slide 8- 62
Figure 8.12 The result of a LEFT
OUTER JOIN operation.

Copyright © 2016 Ramez Elmasri and Shamkant B. Navathe Slide 8- 63

Additional Relational Operations
(continued)
 OUTER UNION Operations

The outer union operation was developed
to take the union of tuples from two
relations if the relations are not type
compatible.

This operation will take the union of tuples
in two relations R(X, Y) and S(X, Z) that
are partially compatible, meaning that
only some of their attributes, say X, are
type compatible.

The attributes that are type compatible
are represented only once in the result,
and those attributes that are not type
compatible from either relation are also
kept in the result relation T(X, Y, Z).
Copyright © 2016 Ramez Elmasri and Shamkant B. Navathe Slide 8- 64
Additional Relational Operations
(continued)
 Example: An outer union can be applied to two
relations whose schemas are STUDENT(Name,
SSN, Department, Advisor) and
INSTRUCTOR(Name, SSN, Department, Rank).

Tuples from the two relations are matched based on
having the same combination of values of the shared
attributes— Name, SSN, Department.

If a student is also an instructor, both Advisor and Rank
will have a value; otherwise, one of these two
attributes will be null.

The result relation STUDENT_OR_INSTRUCTOR will
have the following attributes:
STUDENT_OR_INSTRUCTOR (Name, SSN,
Department, Advisor, Rank)

Copyright © 2016 Ramez Elmasri and Shamkant B. Navathe Slide 8- 65

Examples of Queries in Relational
Algebra : Procedural Form
 Q1: Retrieve the name and address of all employees who work for the
‘Research’ department.
RESEARCH_DEPT   DNAME=’Research’ (DEPARTMENT)
RESEARCH_EMPS  (RESEARCH_DEPT DNUMBER= DNOEMPLOYEE EMPLOYEE)
RESULT   FNAME, LNAME, ADDRESS (RESEARCH_EMPS)

 Q6: Retrieve the names of employees who have no dependents.

ALL_EMPS   SSN(EMPLOYEE)
EMPS_WITH_DEPS(SSN)   ESSN(DEPENDENT)
EMPS_WITHOUT_DEPS  (ALL_EMPS - EMPS_WITH_DEPS)
RESULT   LNAME, FNAME (EMPS_WITHOUT_DEPS * EMPLOYEE)

Copyright © 2016 Ramez Elmasri and Shamkant B. Navathe Slide 8- 66

Examples of Queries in Relational
Algebra – Single expressions

As a single expression, these queries become:

 Q1: Retrieve the name and address of all employees who work for the
‘Research’ department.
 Fname, Lname, Address (σ Dname= ‘Research’
(DEPARTMENT Dnumber=Dno(EMPLOYEE))
 Q6: Retrieve the names of employees who have no dependents.
 Lname, Fname(( Ssn (EMPLOYEE) − ρ Ssn ( Essn
(DEPENDENT))) ∗ EMPLOYEE)

Copyright © 2016 Ramez Elmasri and Shamkant B. Navathe Slide 8- 67

Relational Calculus
 A relational calculus expression creates a new
relation, which is specified in terms of variables
that range over rows of the stored database
relations (in tuple calculus) or over columns of
the stored relations (in domain calculus).
 In a calculus expression, there is no order of
operations to specify how to retrieve the query
result—a calculus expression specifies only what
information the result should contain.
 This is the main distinguishing feature between
relational algebra and relational calculus.

Copyright © 2016 Ramez Elmasri and Shamkant B. Navathe Slide 8- 68

Relational Calculus (continued)
 Relational calculus is considered to be a
nonprocedural or declarative language.
 This differs from relational algebra, where
we must write a sequence of operations to
specify a retrieval request; hence relational
algebra can be considered as a procedural
way of stating a query.

Copyright © 2016 Ramez Elmasri and Shamkant B. Navathe Slide 8- 69

Tuple Relational Calculus
 The tuple relational calculus is based on specifying a
number of tuple variables.
 Each tuple variable usually ranges over a particular
database relation, meaning that the variable may
take as its value any individual tuple from that
relation.
 A simple tuple relational calculus query is of the form
{t | COND(t)}
 where t is a tuple variable and COND (t) is a conditional
expression involving t.

The result of such a query is the set of all tuples t that
satisfy COND (t).

Copyright © 2016 Ramez Elmasri and Shamkant B. Navathe Slide 8- 70

Tuple Relational Calculus (continued)

 Example: To find the first and last names of all

employees whose salary is above $50,000, we can
write the following tuple calculus expression:
{[Link], [Link] | EMPLOYEE(t) AND
[Link]>50000}
 The condition EMPLOYEE(t) specifies that the
range relation of tuple variable t is EMPLOYEE.
 The first and last name (PROJECTION FNAME, LNAME) of
each EMPLOYEE tuple t that satisfies the condition
[Link]>50000 (SELECTION SALARY >50000) will be
retrieved.

Copyright © 2016 Ramez Elmasri and Shamkant B. Navathe Slide 8- 71

The Existential and Universal
Quantifiers
 Two special symbols called quantifiers can appear in
formulas; these are the universal quantifier  and
the existential quantifier 
 Informally, a tuple variable t is bound if it is
quantified, meaning that it appears in an t or
t clause; otherwise, it is free.
 If F is a formula, then so are t)(F) and t)(F),
where t is a tuple variable.

The formula t)(F) is true if the formula F evaluates
to true for some (at least one) tuple assigned to free
occurrences of t in F; otherwise t)(F) is false.

The formula  t)(F) is true if the formula F evaluates
to true for every tuple (in the universe) assigned to
free occurrences of t in F; otherwise t)(F) is false.

Copyright © 2016 Ramez Elmasri and Shamkant B. Navathe Slide 8- 72

The Existential and Universal
Quantifiers (continued)
  is called the universal or “for all”
quantifier because every tuple in “the
universe of” tuples must make F true to
make the quantified formula true.
  is called the existential or “there exists”
quantifier because any tuple that exists in
“the universe of” tuples may make F true to
make the quantified formula true.

Copyright © 2016 Ramez Elmasri and Shamkant B. Navathe Slide 8- 73

Example Query Using Existential
Quantifier
 Retrieve the name and address of all employees who work for
the ‘Research’ department. The query can be expressed as :
{[Link], [Link], [Link] | EMPLOYEE(t) and  d)
(DEPARTMENT(d) and [Link]=‘Research’ and
[Link]=[Link]) }
 The only free tuple variables in a relational calculus expression
should be those that appear to the left of the bar ( | ).

In above query, t is the only free variable; it is then bound
successively to each tuple.
 If a tuple satisfies the conditions specified in the query, the
attributes FNAME, LNAME, and ADDRESS are retrieved for each
such tuple.

The conditions EMPLOYEE (t) and DEPARTMENT(d) specify the
range relations for t and d.

The condition [Link] = ‘Research’ is a selection condition
and corresponds to a SELECT operation in the relational
algebra, whereas the condition [Link] = [Link] is a JOIN
condition.

Copyright © 2016 Ramez Elmasri and Shamkant B. Navathe Slide 8- 74

Example Query Using Universal
Quantifier
 Find the names of employees who work on all the projects controlled
by department number 5. The query can be:
{[Link], [Link] | EMPLOYEE(e) and  x)(not(PROJECT(x))
or not([Link]=5)
OR  w)(WORKS_ON(w) and [Link]=[Link] and
[Link]=[Link]))))}
 Exclude from the universal quantification all tuples that we are not
interested in by making the condition true for all such tuples.

The first tuples to exclude (by making them evaluate automatically to
true) are those that are not in the relation R of interest.
 In query above, using the expression not(PROJECT(x)) inside the
universally quantified formula evaluates to true all tuples x that are
not in the PROJECT relation.

Then we exclude the tuples we are not interested in from R itself. The
expression not([Link]=5) evaluates to true all tuples x that are in the
project relation but are not controlled by department 5.
 Finally, we specify a condition that must hold on all the remaining
tuples in R.
 w)(WORKS_ON(w) and [Link]=[Link] and
[Link]=[Link])

Copyright © 2016 Ramez Elmasri and Shamkant B. Navathe Slide 8- 75

Languages Based on Tuple Relational
Calculus
 The language SQL is based on tuple calculus. It
uses the basic block structure to express the
queries in tuple calculus:
 SELECT <list of attributes>
 FROM <list of relations>
 WHERE <conditions>
 SELECT clause mentions the attributes being
projected, the FROM clause mentions the relations
needed in the query, and the WHERE clause
mentions the selection as well as the join
conditions.
 SQL syntax is expanded further to accommodate
other operations. (See Chapter 8).

Copyright © 2016 Ramez Elmasri and Shamkant B. Navathe Slide 8- 76

Languages Based on Tuple Relational
Calculus (continued)
 Another language which is based on tuple calculus
is QUEL which actually uses the range variables as
in tuple calculus. Its syntax includes:
 RANGE OF <variable name> IS <relation name>
 Then it uses
 RETRIEVE <list of attributes from range variables>
 WHERE <conditions>
 This language was proposed in the relational DBMS
INGRES. (system is currently still supported by
Computer Associates – but the QUEL language is
no longer there).

Copyright © 2016 Ramez Elmasri and Shamkant B. Navathe Slide 8- 77

The Domain Relational Calculus
 Another variation of relational calculus called the domain
relational calculus, or simply, domain calculus is equivalent
to tuple calculus and to relational algebra.
 The language called QBE (Query-By-Example) that is related
to domain calculus was developed almost concurrently to
SQL at IBM Research, Yorktown Heights, New York.
 Domain calculus was thought of as a way to explain what

QBE does.
 Domain calculus differs from tuple calculus in the type of
variables used in formulas:
 Rather than having variables range over tuples, the

variables range over single values from domains of

attributes.
 To form a relation of degree n for a query result, we must
have n of these domain variables— one for each attribute.

Copyright © 2016 Ramez Elmasri and Shamkant B. Navathe Slide 8- 78

The Domain Relational Calculus
(continued)
 An expression of the domain calculus is of
the form
{ x1, x2, . . ., xn |
COND(x1, x2, . . ., xn, xn+1, xn+2, . . .,
xn+m)}
 where x1, x2, . . ., xn, xn+1, xn+2, . . ., xn+m are
domain variables that range over domains (of
attributes)
 and COND is a condition or formula of the
domain relational calculus.
Copyright © 2016 Ramez Elmasri and Shamkant B. Navathe Slide 8- 79
Example Query Using Domain
Calculus
Retrieve the birthdate and address of the employee whose name is ‘John B.
Smith’.
 Query :
{uv | (q) (r) (s) (t) (w) (x) (y) (z)
(EMPLOYEE(qrstuvwxyz) and q=’John’ and r=’B’ and s=’Smith’)}

 Abbreviated notation EMPLOYEE(qrstuvwxyz) uses the

variables without the separating commas: EMPLOYEE(q,r,s,t,u,v,w,x,y,z)

 Ten variables for the employee relation are needed, one to range over the
domain of each attribute in order.

Of the ten variables q, r, s, . . ., z, only u and v are free.
 Specify the requested attributes, BDATE and ADDRESS, by the free domain
variables u for BDATE and v for ADDRESS.
 Specify the condition for selecting a tuple following the bar ( | )—
 namely, that the sequence of values assigned to the variables
qrstuvwxyz be a tuple of the employee relation and that the values for q
(FNAME), r (MINIT), and s (LNAME) be ‘John’, ‘B’, and ‘Smith’,
respectively.

Copyright © 2016 Ramez Elmasri and Shamkant B. Navathe Slide 8- 80

QBE: A Query Language Based on
Domain Calculus (Appendix C)
 This language is based on the idea of giving an
example of a query using “example elements” which
are nothing but domain variables.
 Notation: An example element stands for a domain
variable and is specified as an example value
preceded by the underscore character.
 P. (called P dot) operator (for “print”) is placed in
those columns which are requested for the result of
the query.
 A user may initially start giving actual values as
examples, but later can get used to providing a
minimum number of variables as example elements.

Copyright © 2016 Ramez Elmasri and Shamkant B. Navathe Slide 8- 81

QBE: A Query Language Based on
Domain Calculus (Appendix C)
 The language is very user-friendly, because it
uses minimal syntax.
 QBE was fully developed further with facilities
for grouping, aggregation, updating etc. and
is shown to be equivalent to SQL.
 The language is available under QMF (Query
Management Facility) of DB2 of IBM and has
been used in various ways by other products
like ACCESS of Microsoft, and PARADOX.
 For details, see Appendix C in the text.

Copyright © 2016 Ramez Elmasri and Shamkant B. Navathe Slide 8- 82

QBE Examples
 QBE initially presents a relational schema
as a “blank schema” in which the user fills
in the query as an example:

Copyright © 2016 Ramez Elmasri and Shamkant B. Navathe Slide 8- 83

Example Schema as a QBE Query Interface

Copyright © 2016 Ramez Elmasri and Shamkant B. Navathe Slide 8- 84

QBE Examples
 The following domain calculus query can be
successively minimized by the user as shown:
 Query :

{uv | (q) (r) (s) (t) (w) (x) (y)

(z)
(EMPLOYEE(qrstuvwxyz) and q=‘John’ and
r=‘B’ and s=‘Smith’)}

Copyright © 2016 Ramez Elmasri and Shamkant B. Navathe Slide 8- 85

Four Successive Ways to Specify a QBE Query

Copyright © 2016 Ramez Elmasri and Shamkant B. Navathe Slide 8- 86

QBE Examples
 Specifying complex conditions in QBE:
 A technique called the “condition box” is
used in QBE to state more involved Boolean
expressions as conditions.
 The C.4(a) gives employees who work on
either project 1 or 2, whereas the query in
C.4(b) gives those who work on both the
projects.

Copyright © 2016 Ramez Elmasri and Shamkant B. Navathe Slide 8- 87

Complex Conditions with and without a condition box as
a part of QBE Query

Copyright © 2016 Ramez Elmasri and Shamkant B. Navathe Slide 8- 88

Handling AND conditions in a QBE Query

Copyright © 2016 Ramez Elmasri and Shamkant B. Navathe Slide 8- 89

JOIN in QBE : Examples
 The join is simply accomplished by using
the same example element (variable with
underscore) in the columns being joined
from different (or same as in C.5 (b))
relation.
 Note that the Result is set us as an
independent table to show variables from
multiple relations placed in the result.

Copyright © 2016 Ramez Elmasri and Shamkant B. Navathe Slide 8- 90

Performing Join with common example elements
and use of a RESULT relation

Copyright © 2016 Ramez Elmasri and Shamkant B. Navathe Slide 8- 91

AGGREGATION in QBE
 Aggregation is accomplished by using .CNT
for count,.MAX, .MIN, .AVG for the
corresponding aggregation functions
 Grouping is accomplished by .G operator.
 Condition Box may use conditions on
groups (similar to HAVING clause in SQL –
see Section 8.5.8)

Copyright © 2016 Ramez Elmasri and Shamkant B. Navathe Slide 8- 92

 AGGREGATION in QBE : Examples

Copyright © 2016 Ramez Elmasri and Shamkant B. Navathe Slide 8- 93

NEGATION in QBE : Example

Copyright © 2016 Ramez Elmasri and Shamkant B. Navathe Slide 8- 94

 UPDATING in QBE : Examples

Copyright © 2016 Ramez Elmasri and Shamkant B. Navathe Slide 8- 95

Chapter Summary
 Relational Algebra
 Unary Relational Operations
 Relational Algebra Operations From Set
Theory
 Binary Relational Operations
 Additional Relational Operations
 Examples of Queries in Relational Algebra
 Relational Calculus
 Tuple Relational Calculus
 Domain Relational Calculus
 Overview of the QBE language (appendix C)
Copyright © 2016 Ramez Elmasri and Shamkant B. Navathe Slide 8- 96