Module- 3

Evolution of cellular Technologies

Frequency Domain Multiple Accesses
Introduction
• Telecommunication industry is experiencing the emergence of a number of competing &
enhancing technologies, including, WiMAX, HSPA, WCDMA.

• With the user requirements on the ever increasing side cellular networks are facing greater than
ever competition from other technologies.

• HSPA & MBMS (multimedia broadcast & multicast service) has enhanced the 3G networks by
bringing important capabilities,

• but these improvements are still not enough to match broadcasting technologies broadband
wireless access (like WiMAX) for delivering modern services, e.g. mobile TV, Internet access & other
important services.

• Therefore, 3G networks need a major overhaul to remain competitive in the future.

• In order to stay competitive in the long run, 3GPP has initiated activity on the LTE of UTRAN
(Universal Terrestrial Radio Access Network),

• which is eyeing clearly beyond to what the WCDMA can do with HSDPA or HSUPA.

• 3GPP’s answer to this demanding situation is 3G LTE

Brief History

1. First generation Cellular system: Advanced mobile phone service (AMPS)

4
Brief History

2. 2G digital cellular systems: GSM , IS-95 CDMA, IS-136

TDMA

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Brief History

2. 2G digital cellular systems: GSM , IS-95 CDMA, IS-136

TDMA

8
Brief History

3. 3G broadband wireless system: W-CDMA, CDMA-2000, EV-DO, HSPA

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Brief History

4. Beyond 3G: HSPA+, WiMAX and LTE

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 Demand
drivers for LTE
1. Growth in high bandwidth applications

2. Proliferation of smart mobile devices

3. Intense competition leading to flat revenues

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Key requirements
for LTE design
1. Performance on par with wired broadband

2. Flexible spectrum usage

3. Co-existence and interworking with 3G systems

4. Reducing cost per megabyte

15
• Requirements for LTE
key requirements & capability targets for the LTE are :
• Low latency : for both user plane & control plane, with a 5MHz spectrum
allocation the latency target is below 5 ms
• Bandwidth Scalability : different bandwidths can be used depending upon the
requirements (1.25 to 20 MHz)
• Peak Data Rates : 100 Mbps for DL , 50 Mbps for UL
• 2 to 3 times capacity over existing Release 6 scenarios with HSUPA
• 2 to 4 times capacity over existing Release 6 scenarios with HSDPA
• Only Packet Switched Domain support
• Improved Cell edge performance
• Inter-working with the existing 2G and 3G systems and non-3GPP systems
• Optimized for low mobile speed but also support high mobile speeds
• Reduction of complexity in both system & terminals
• Ease of migration from existing networks
• Simplification & minimization of the number of interfaces
1.4 Key Enabling Technologies
and Features of LTE
• LTE was required to deliver a peak data rate of 100 Mbps in the downlink and 50 Mbps in the
uplink.

• LTE was required to support a spectral efficiency three to four times greater than that of
Release 6 WCDMA in the downlink and two to three times greater in the uplink.

• Latency is another important issue, particularly for time-critical applications such as voice and
interactive games.

1. Orthogonal Frequency Division Multiplexing (OFDM)

2. SC-FDE and SC-FDMA

3. Channel Dependent Multi-user Resource Scheduling

4. Multi-antenna Techniques

17
1.4 Key Enabling Technologies
and Features of LTE
1.4.1 Orthogonal Frequency Division Multiplexing (OFDM)

1. Elegant solutions to multipath interference

2. Reduced computational complexity

3. Graceful degradation of performance under excess delay

4. Exploitation of frequency diversity

5. Enables efficient multi-access scheme

6. Robust against narrowband interference

7. Suitable for coherent demodulation

8. Facilitates use of MIMO

9. Efficient support for broadcast services

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1.4 Key Enabling Technologies and Features Of LTE
1.4.1 Orthogonal Frequency Division Multiplexing(OFDM)
(Modulation Technology)
1.4.2 SCFDE and SC-FDMA
1.4.3 Channel Dependent Multiuser Resource Scheduling
1.4.4 Multi antenna Techniques
1.4.5 IP Based Flat Network Architecture
1.4 Key Enabling Technologies and Features Of LTE
1.4.1 Orthogonal Frequency Division Multiplexing
OFDM is core technology used to achieve higher data rate in LTE
The advantages of OFDM
• Elegant solution to multipath interference (ISI)– OFDM will over
this by using multicarrier modulation technique – Divide high bit
rate data stream into lower bit data streams & modulated with
separate carrier(subcarriers).
• Subcarriers are selected orthogonal to one other over symbol
duration(small) .
• It a voids the over lapping & adds the guard intervals.
• Reduced computational complexity : uses FFT/IFFT- Reduces the
receiver process (reduces the mobile cost power consumption)
1.4 Key Enabling Technologies and Features Of LTE
1.4.1 Orthogonal Frequency Division Multiplexing
OFDM is core technology used to achieve higher data rate in LTE
• Graceful degradation of performance under excess delay–
OFDM is well suited for adaptive modulation coding.
• Which makes the best of available channel condition
• Exploitation of frequency diversity– Avoid the burst errors due
to fading.
• BW is scalable without changing hardware.
• Enables efficient multi access scheme ---OFDMA.
• Robust against narrowband interference
• Suitable for coherent demodulation -- more power efficient
• Facilitates use of MIMO – uses multiple antennas(MIMO)
• Efficient support of broadcast services--
1.4.2 SC-FDE and SC-FDMA
(SC-FDE- Single carrier Frequency Domain Equalization)
To keep cost down & battery life up, LTE incorporated a power efficient
transmission scheme for the uplink.
Single carrier frequency domain equalization(SC-FDMA) is similar to OFDM.
But instead of transmitting IFFT of actual data symbols, the data symbols are
sent as a sequence of QAM symbols with a cyclic prefix added.
SC-FDE– retains all advantages of OFDM (multipath resistance. Low complexity,
low PAR )
SC –FDMA- Allows multiple users to use parts of the frequency spectrum in uplink.

1.4.3 Channel Dependent Multiuser Resource Scheduling

Each user experience uncorrelated fading channels,
it is possible to allocate subcarriers among users in such a way that the overall
capacity is increased.
This technique is called frequency selective multiuser scheduling.
1.4.4 Multiantenna Techniques
•Transmit diversity: This is the technique to combat multipath fading in the
wireless channel.
•Idea here is to send copies of the same signal, coded differently, over multiple
transmit antenna.

•Beamforming: The idea here is to focus the transmitted beam in the direction
of the receiver and away from interference, there by improving the received
signal to interference ratio (SIR).

•Spatial multiplexing: The idea behind spatial multiplexing is that multiple

independent streams can be transmitted in parallel over multiple antennas and
can be separated at the receiver using multiple receive chains through signal
processing

•Multiuser MIMO: This allows multiple users in the uplink, each with a single
antenna, to transmit using the same frequency and time resource, is supported.
1.4.5 IP Based Flat Network Architecture

•“Flat” here implies fewer nodes and less hierarchical structure for the network.
•The lower cost & lower latency requirements drove the design toward a flat
architecture since fewer nodes implies a lower infrastructure cost.
•It also means fewer interfaces & protocol related processing, and reduced
interoperability testing, which lowers the development and deployment cost.
•The key aspect of LTE flat architecture is that all services, including voice,
supported on IP packet network using IP protocol.
1.4.5 IP Based Flat Network Architecture
1.5 LTE Network Architecture
 Multicarrier Modulation:
Introduction:
• Multicarrier modulation used in many of the most successful
modern wireless systems, including
• Digital Subscriber Lines (DSL).
• Wireless LANs (802.11a/g/n).
• Digital Video Broadcasting.
• Beyond 3C cellular technologies such as WiMAX and LTE.
• The common feature of multicarrier modulation techniques is the
use of multiple parallel subcarriers, invariably generated by the
Discrete Fourier Transform (DFT).
• The most common type of multicarrier modulation is Orthogonal
Frequency Division Multiplexing (OFDM).
• Other examples Discrete Multi-Tone (DMT).
 Multicarrier Modulation:

3.2 The Multicarrier Concept:

• The main purpose of using multicarrier modulation to achieve high data rates &
mitigate ISI in broadband channels.

much larger than the channel delay spread 𝜏 (𝑇𝑠 ≫ 𝜏 )&

• In order to have a channel that does not have ISI the symbol time 𝑇𝑠, has to be

• transmission bandwidth less than coherence bandwidth (CB)

1. To achieve 𝑇𝑠 ≫ 𝜏, In multicarrier modulation divides the high-rate transmit

• Concept:

bit stream into L lower-rate sub-streams,

𝑇𝑠 𝐿 ≫ 𝜏 & is hence effectively ISI-free. These individual sub-streams can

where L is chosen so that each of the subcarriers has effective symbol time

then be sent over L parallel subcarriers, maintaining the total desired data rate.
2. The data rate on each of the subcarriers is much less than the total flat a rate, and

so the corresponding subcarrier bandwidth is much less than the total system
bandwidth.
The number of sub-streams is chosen to ensure that each subcarrier has a
bandwidth less than the coherence bandwidth (CB) of the channel.
 Multicarrier Modulation:
An Elegant Approach to Inter Symbol Interference:
• Multicarrier modulation divides the wideband incoming data stream
into L narrow band sub-streams.
• Each of which is then transmitted over a different orthogonal
frequency subcarrier.
• The number of sub-streams L is chosen to make the symbol time 𝑇𝑠
each sub-stream
much greater than the delay spread of 𝜏 the channel or, equivalently,
to make the sub-
stream bandwidth less than the channel coherence bandwidth.
This ensures that the sub-streams will not experience significant ISI.
• Multicarrier transmitter& Receiver: In Fig 3.1 a high-rate data signal of
rate ‘R’ bps & with a pass bandwidth ‘B’ is broken into ‘L’ parallel sub-
streams each with data rate ‘R/L’ & pass band bandwidth ‘B/L’.
• After passing through the channel H(f), the received signal would
appear as shown in Figure 3.3, no subcarrier overlap since the
subcarrier bandwidth very much smaller than the coherence
bandwidth CB, i,e. B/L << CB, then it can be ensured that each sub-
 Multicarrier Modulation:

Fig 3.1: A basic multicarrier

Fig3.2: A basic multicarrier
transmitter: a high-rate stream of R
receiver: each subcarrier is
bps is broken into L parallel sub-
decoded separately, requiring L
streams each with rate R/L and then
independent receivers.
multiplied by a different carrier
frequency
Fig 3.3 The transmitted
multicarrier signal experiences
approximately flat fading on
each sub-carrier
since B/L ≪ BC, even though the
overall channel experiences
frequency selective fading, that
 Orthogonal Frequency Division Multiplexing ( OFDM )
OFDM - Basics
• OFDM employs the Fast Fourier Transform (FFT) to achieve ‘L’ RF radios path in both the
transmitter and receiver.
• IFFT are able to create a multitude of orthogonal subcarriers using just a single radio.

Block Transmission with Guard Intervals:

Grouping ‘L’ data symbols into a block known as an OFDM symbol with a duration of T
seconds.
Where T = LTS.
Guard time ‘ Tg ‘ introduce in between OFDM symbol to keep independent of the others after
going through a wireless channel as shown below:

Receiving a series of OFDM symbols, as long as the guard time Tg is larger than the delay
spread of the channel 𝜏 , each OFDM symbol will only interfere with itself.
 Orthogonal Frequency Division Multiplexing ( OFDM )
OFDM - Basics
OFDM transmissions allow ISI within an OFDM symbol.
But by including a sufficiently large guard band,
it is possible to guarantee that there is no interference between subsequent OFDM symbols.

The Cyclic Prefix (CP)

•The cyclic prefix acts as a buffer region or guard interval to protect the OFDM
signals from ISI.
•The CP is obtained by taking the last 𝑣 samples from the length N block of OFDM symbols,
and it is appended at the start of the symbol block.
•As a result, the transmitted OFDM symbol block is of length N + 𝑣 𝑎𝑠 𝑠ℎ𝑜𝑤𝑛 𝑖𝑛 figure.
•For each OFDM symbol to be independent and to avoid any ISI and ICI, the 𝑣 of the CP
should be at least equal to the channel order
 Orthogonal Frequency Division Multiplexing ( OFDM )
OFDM - Basics
The cyclic prefix performs two main functions.
•It provides a guard interval to eliminate ISI from the previous symbol.
•It repeats the end of the symbol so the linear convolution of a frequency-selective
multipath channel can be modeled as circular convolution, which may transform
to the frequency domain via a DFT.
This approach accommodates simple frequency domain processing, such as
channel estimation and equalization.
•FFT/IFFT algorithms are used to realize OFDM in practice with reduced
computational complexity.
•The IFFT operation at the transmitter allows all the subcarriers to be created in
the digital domain, and thus requires only a single radio to be used.
•In order for the IFFT/FFT to create an ISI-free channel, the channel must appear
to provide a circular convolution.
• If a cyclic prefix is added to the transmitted signal, as shown in Figure, then this
creates a signal that appears to be x[n]L, and so
y[n] = x[n]⊛ h[n]
 Orthogonal Frequency Division Multiplexing ( OFDM )
OFDM - Basics
If the maximum channel delay spread has a duration of 𝑣 +1 samples, then by
adding a guard band of at least 𝑣 samples between OFDM symbols, j symbol is
made independent of those coming before and after it, and so just a single OFDM
symbol can be considered.
•Representing such an OFDM symbol in the time domain as a length L vector gives
𝑿 = [𝑥 1,𝑥 2,𝑥 3, … … … . . 𝑥 𝐿 ,]
• After applying a cyclic prefix of length 𝑣, the actual transmitted signal is
•The output of the channel is by definition
𝑌𝑐𝑝, = ℎ ∗ 𝑋𝑐𝑝,
where h is a length 𝑣 + 1 vector describing the impulse response of the channel
during the OFDM symbols.
•The output 𝑌𝑐𝑝 has samples = Length of OFDM symbol + Length of the channel
response - 1
= (L + 𝑣) + (𝑣 + 1) - 1
= L + 2𝑣 samples.
 Orthogonal Frequency Division Multiplexing ( OFDM )
OFDM - Basics
The first 𝑣 samples of 𝑌𝑐𝑝, contain
interference from the preceding OFDM
symbol, and so are discarded.
•The last 𝑣 samples disperse into the
subsequent OFDM symbol, and so also
are discarded.
•This leaves exactly L samples for the
desired output ′𝑦 ′, which is precisely
what is required to recover the L data
symbols embedded in 𝑿 .
•These L samples of 𝑦 will be equivalent
to 𝑦 = h⊛ x.
•The circular convolution operation
y[n] = x[n]⊛ h[n] as shown in figure

The OFDM cyclic prefix creates a circular convolution

at the receiver (signal y) even though the actual
channel causes a linear convolution
 Orthogonal Frequency Division Multiplexing ( OFDM )
OFDM - Basics
Due to the cyclic prefix 𝑦0 depends on 𝑥0 & the circularly wrapped values 𝑥𝐿− 𝑣 …
… 𝑥 𝐿 −1,That is:

•Channel output y to be decomposed into a simple multiplication of the channel

frequency response
H = DFT {h} and the channel frequency domain input X = DFT{x}.
•The drawback of cyclic prefix need more bandwidth and power penalty.
•Since 𝑣 redundant symbols are sent, the required Bandwidth of OFDM in increase
from

•In summary, the use of cyclic prefix entails data rate and power losses that are both

•The "wasted" power has increased importance in an interference-limited wireless

system, since it causes interference to neighboring users.
 Orthogonal Frequency Division Multiplexing ( OFDM )
OFDM - Basics
Frequency Equalization:
•Equalization is the process of adjusting the balance between frequency components
within a received OFDM signal.
•Frequency domain equalizers (FEQs) have been applied extensively in multicarrier
systems to enhance transmission rate by reducing transmit redundancy in the form
of guard interval.
•Received symbols to be estimated, the complex channel gains for each subcarrier
must be known, which corresponds to knowing the amplitude and phase of the
subcarrier.
•After the FFT is performed, the data symbols are estimated using a one-tap
frequency domain equalizer, or FEQ, as
•Where 𝐻𝑙 is the complex response of the channel at the frequency 𝑓𝑐 + ( 𝑙 − 1)∆ 𝑓,

•Therefore it both corrects the phase and equalizes the amplitude before the decision
device.
 Orthogonal Frequency Division Multiplexing ( OFDM )
OFDM – Basics
An OFDM Block Diagram
The key steps in an OFDM communication system are briefly shown in Figure

An OFDM system in vector notation. In OFDM, the encoding and decoding is done in the
frequency domain, where X, Y. and 𝑋 contain the L transmitted, received, and estimated data
symbols.
 Orthogonal Frequency Division Multiplexing ( OFDM )
OFDM – Basics
Transmitter operations:
Step 1: In OFDM, break a wideband signal of bandwidth 𝐵 into 𝐿 narrowband subcarriers each
of bandwidth 𝐵/𝐿 and each subcarrier experiences flat fading, or ISI-free communication,
as long as a cyclic prefix that exceeds the delay spread is used.
The 𝐿 subcarriers for a given OFDM symbol are represented by a vector 𝑋, which
contains the L current symbols.
Step 2: 𝐿 independent narrow band subcarriers are created digitally using an IFFT operation.
Step 3: IFFT/FFT decompose the ISI channel into orthogonal subcarriers, a cyclic prefix of
length 𝑣 must be appended after the IFFT operation.
The resulting 𝐿 + 𝑣 symbols are then sent in serial through the wideband channel.
Receiver operations:
At the receiver, the cyclic prefix is discarded, and the L received symbols are demodulated
using an FFT operation, which results in L data symbols, each of the form
𝑌𝑙 = 𝐻𝑙 𝑋𝑙 + 𝑁𝑙 for subcarrier 𝑙.
Each subcarrier can then be equalized via an FEQ by simply dividing by the complex channel
gain H[i] for that subcarrier. This results in

Where 𝐻𝑙 is the complex response of the channel at the frequency 𝑓𝑐+( 𝑙−1)∆ 𝑓, and therefore it
both corrects the phase and equalizes the amplitude before the decision device.
 Orthogonal Frequency Division Multiplexing ( OFDM )
OFDM in LTE
•LTE systems used as an example to brief time and frequency domain interpretations of
OFDM.
•Figure shows view of a pass band OFDM modulation engine.
•The inputs to this figure are L independent QAM symbols (the vector X), and these L symbols
are treated as separate subcarriers.

A close-up of the OFDM baseband to pass band transmitter

 Orthogonal Frequency Division Multiplexing ( OFDM )
OFDM in LTE
•These L data-bearing symbols can be created from a bit stream by a symbol mapper
and serial-to-parallel convertor (S/P).
•The L-point IFFT then creates a time domain L-vector x that is cyclic extended to
length L(1 + G), where G is the fractional overhead.
•In LTE G= 0.07 for the normal cyclic prefix and
G = 0.25 for the extended cyclic prefix.
•This longer vector is then parallel-to-serial (P/S) converted into a wideband digital
signal that can be amplitude modulated with a single radio at a carrier frequency of
𝑓𝑐 = 𝜔𝑐/2𝜋 .
•For example, if 16 QAM modulation was used (M = 16) with the normal cyclic
prefix, the raw (neglecting coding) data rate of this LTE system would be:
 Orthogonal Frequency Division Multiplexing ( OFDM )
OFDM in LTE

Table: summary of Key OFDM parameters in LTE and example values for 10mHz
 Orthogonal Frequency Division Multiplexing ( OFDM )
Timing and Frequency Synchronization

• In order to demodulate 10 OFDM signal, there are two important synchronization tasks
that need to be performed by the receiver.
• First, the timing offset of the symbol & optimal timing instants need to be determined.
This is referred to as timing asynchronization
• Second, the receiver must align its carrier frequency as closely is possible with the
transmitted carrier frequency: This is referred to as frequency synchronization.
Compared to single-currier systems, the timing synchronization requirements for
OFDM are in fact somewhat relaxed, since the OFDM symbol structure naturally ac
accommodates a reasonable degree of synchronization error.
• On the other hand, frequency synchronization requirements are significantly more
stringent, since the orthogonality of the data symbols is reliant on their being
individually discernible in the frequency domain.
• A representation of an OFDM symbol in time (top) & frequency (bottom).
• In the time domain, the IFFT effectively modulates each data symbol onto a unique
carrier frequency only two of the carriers are shown—the actual transmitted signal is
the superposition of all the individual curriers.
• Since the time window is T = 1sec & a rectangular window is used, frequency response
of each subcarrier becomes a "Sine" function with zero Crossings every 1/T = IMHz.
This can be confirmed using the Fourier Transform F{.} since
 Orthogonal Frequency Division Multiplexing ( OFDM )
Timing and Frequency Synchronization

• Where rect (Z) = 1. 1€ (-0.5, 0.5), and zero elsewhere.

• This frequency response is shown for L=8 subcarriers in the bottom part
• The challenge of timing & frequency synchronization can be appreciated by
inspecting these two figures.
• If the timing window is slid to the left or right, i unique phase change will be
introduced to each of the subcarriers.
• In the frequency domain, if the carrier frequency synchronization is perfect, the
receiver samples at the peak of each subcarrier, where the desired subcarrier
amplitude is maximized and the inter-carrier interference (ICI) is zero.
 Orthogonal Frequency Division Multiplexing ( OFDM )
Timing Synchronization
• The effect of timing errors in symbol synchronization is somewhat relaxed in OFDM
due to a cyclic prefix.
• Only the L time domain samples after the cyclic prefix were utilized by the receiver.
• Indeed, this corresponds to "perfect timing synchronization, & in this case even if the
cyclic prefix length N. is equivalent to the length of the channel impulse response
successive OFDM symbols can be decoded ISI free
 Orthogonal Frequency Division Multiplexing ( OFDM )
Timing Synchronization
Figure 4:OFDM syschronization in time(top) and frequency (bottom)
 Orthogonal Frequency Division Multiplexing ( OFDM )
Timing Synchronization

Figure 5: Timing synchronization margin

For both of these scenarios, the SNR loss can be approximated by

SNR decreases quadratically with the timing offset.

• Longer OFDM symbols are increasingly immune from timing offset, that is, more sub
carriers helps.
• Since in general T & IT timing synchronization errors not that critical as long as the
induced phase change is corrected.
 Orthogonal Frequency Division Multiplexing ( OFDM )
Frequency Synchronization
OFDM achieves a high degree of bandwidth efficiency compared to other wideband
systems.
The subcarrier packing is extremely tight compared to conventional modulation
techniques, which require a guard band on the order of 50% Or more,
in addition to special transmitter architectures such as the Weaver architecture or
single-sideband modulation that suppress the redundant negative-frequency portion of
the passband signal.
The multicarrier signal shown in Figure 3.8 is very sensitive to frequency offsets due to
the fact that the subcarriers overlap, rather than having each subcarrier truly spectrally
isolated.
We'll now analyze this ICI in order to better understand its effect on OFDM
performance.
The matched Alter receiver corresponding to subcarrier I can be simply expressed for
the case of rectangular windows (neglecting the carrier frequency) :
 Orthogonal Frequency Division Multiplexing ( OFDM )
Frequency Synchronization
 Orthogonal Frequency Division Multiplexing ( OFDM )
Frequency Synchronization

SNR decreases quadratically with the frequency offset.

• SNR decreases quadratically with the number of subcarriers.
• The loss in SNR is also proportional to the SNR itself

Figure 6: SNR loss a function of frequency offset

 Orthogonal Frequency Division Multiplexing ( OFDM )
The Peak-to-Average Ratio (PAR)
OFDM signals have a higher peak-to-average ratio (PAR)often Called a peak-to-average power
ratio (PAPR) than do single-carrier signals.
The reason for this is that in the time domain, a multicarrier signal is the sum of many
narrowband signals.
At some times, this sum is large at other times it is small, which means that the peak value of
the signal is substantially larger than the average value.
The PAR Problem
When a high-peak signal is transmitted through a nonlinear device such as a high-power
amplifier (HPA) or digital-to-analog converter (DAC), it generates out-of-band energy (spectral
regrowth) and in-band distortion (Constellation tilting and scattering).
These degradations may affect the system performance severely.
The nonlinear behavior of HPA ah be characterized by amplitude modulation,’ amplitude
nodulation (AM/AM) und amplitude modulation/phase modulation (AM/PM) responses.
The input backoff is defined as
 Orthogonal Frequency Division Multiplexing ( OFDM )
The Peak-to-Average Ratio (PAR)

Figure 6: A typical power amplifier response

The power efficiency of an HPA can be increased by reducing the PAR of the transmitted
signal.
In addition to the large burden placed on the HPA, a high PAR requires high resolution for
both the transmitter's digital-to-analog convertor (DAC) and the receiver's
 Orthogonal Frequency Division Multiplexing ( OFDM )
The Peak-to-Average Ratio (PAR)

Figure 7: Theoritical efficiency limits of linera amplifiers

 Orthogonal Frequency Division Multiplexing ( OFDM )
Clipping and Other PAR Reduction Techniques

In order to avoid operating the PA in the nonlinear region, the input power can be
reduced up to 10 amount about equal to the PAR.
This is very inefficient 101d will reduce the range and/or SINR of the system by the same
amount.
However, two important facts related to this IBO amount can be observed from Figure
First, sing the highest PAR values are uncommon, it might be possible to simply "clip" off
the highest peaks, at the cost of some hopefully minimal distortion of the signal.
Second , it can be seen that even for a conservative choice of IBO, say 10 dB, there is still a
distinct possibility that given.
OFDM symbol will have a PAR that exceeds the IBO and causes clipping.
Clipping, sometimes called "soft limiting," truncates the amplitude of signals that exceed
the clipping level as

The clipping ratio can be used as a metric and is defined as

 Orthogonal Frequency Division Multiplexing ( OFDM )
Clipping and Other PAR Reduction Techniques
Obviously, clipping reduces the PAR at the expense of distorting the desired signal.
The two primary drawbacks from clipping are (1) spectral regrowth (frequency
domain leakage), which causes unacceptable interference to users in neighboring RF
channels,

where ck represents the clipped off signal in the frequency domain. In Figure, the
power spectral density of the original (X), clipped (X), und clipped-off (C) signals are
plotted for different clipping ratios y of 3, 5, and 7 dB.
The following deleterious effects are observed.

Figure 8: Power spectral density

 Orthogonal Frequency Division Multiplexing ( OFDM )
Clipping and Other PAR Reduction Techniques
Attenuation of the desired signal,

Now, d[n]is uncorrelated with the signal #[n] and the attenuation factor a is obtained

The attenuation factor a is plotted in Figure is a function of the clipping ratio . The
attenuation factor a is negligible when the clipping ratio a is greater than 8 dB, so for
high clipping ratios,
Gaussian input x[n] as
 Orthogonal Frequency Division Multiplexing ( OFDM )
Clipping and Other PAR Reduction Techniques

The bit-error probability (BEP) can be evaluated for different modulation types
using the SNDR [12]. In the case of M-QAM and average power & the BEP can then
be approximated as
 Orthogonal Frequency Division Multiplexing ( OFDM )
LTE's Approach to PAR in the Uplink

LTE has taken a pioneering new approach to PAR. In the downlink. PAR is less important
because the base stations are fewer in number and generally higher in cost, and so we

Figure 10: Bit error rate probibility for a clipped OFDM signal

Typically, the high PAR is basically tolerated and sufficient input power back off is
undertaken in order to keep the in-band distortion and spectral regrowth at an
acceptable level.
 Single-Carrier Frequency Domain Equalization (SC-FDE)
• An alternative approach to OFDM is the less popular but conceptually similar single
carrier frequency domain equalization (SC-FDE) approach to ISI suppression .
• SC-FDE maintains OFDM's three most important benefits low complexity even severe
multipath channels excellent BER performance, close to theoretical bounds; and a
decoupling of ISI from other types of interference, notably spatial interference, which
is very useful when using multiple antenna transmission.
• By utilizing single-carrier transmission, the peak-to-average ratio is also reduced
significantly (by several dB) relative to multicarrier modulation.
SC-FDE System Description
• FDE is used in both OFDM & SC-FDE systems primarily in order to reduce the
complexity inherent to time-domain equalization.
• The black diagrams for OFDM & SC-FDE are compared .
• The only apparent difference between the two systems is that the IFFT is moved to the
end of the receive chain rather than operating at the transmitter, to create a
multicarrier waveform is in OFDM.
 Single-Carrier Frequency Domain Equalization (SC-FDE)

Figure 11: comparison between an OFDM system and an SC-FDE system.

An SC-FDE system still utilizes al cyclic prefix at least as long as the channel delay spread,
but now the transmitted signal is simply a sequence of QAM symbols, which have low
PAR, on the order of 4-5 dB depending on the constellation size.
Considering that an unmodulated sine wave has PAR of 3 dB, it is clear that the PAR
cannot be lowered much below that of an SC-FDE system.
 Single-Carrier Frequency Domain Equalization (SC-FDE)
just is in OFDM, with the important distinction being that now the frequency domain
version Xm is not precisely the data symbols, but rather the FFT of the data symbols ZI.
Analogously, recall that in OFDM system the transmitted time-domain signal zn WALS not
the actual data symbols, but rather the IFFT of the actual data symbols.

The resulting signal can then be converted back into the time domain using an IFFT
operation to give in x[n], which are estimates of the desired data symbols. Naturally, in
practice H[m ]must be estimated at the receiver using pilot signals or other standard
methods
 SC-FDE Performance vs. OFDM
OFDM SC-FDE
In General OFDM is more complex than SC-FDE Relatively less complex than OFDM
It has a lower-complexity receiver It has higher-complexity receiver
It has medium-complexity transmitter It has lower-complexity transmitter
LTE downlink could utilize OFDM LTE uplink could utilize SC-FDE
The Base Station as transmitter would perform 3 IFFT/FFT It perform only a single FFT operation at receiver
operations

The PAR is high in OFDM and high cost and more power It benefits of reduced PAR and the reduced cost and power
requirement. savings.
The channel estimation and synchronization are It include preamble is in the time domain so it is not as
accomplished via a preamble of known data symbols, and straightforward to estimate the frequency domain values.
then pilot tones.

The preamble can be inserted at known positions in all It is not possible to insert pilot tones on a per frame basis.
subsequent OFDM symbols Hence it uses DFT and IFFT at the transmitter
OFDM has a nominally less dispersive spectrum. SC-FDE has a nominally more dispersive spectrum.
OFDM's sharper spectrum results in less co-channel Due to dispersive spectrum results more co-channel
interference and/or Less restrictive RF roll-off requirements. interference and/or more restrictive RF roll-off requirements.

The combination of OFDM with MIMO is a natural and best The combination of SC-FDE with MIMO is not as natural
combination for performance improvement in fading because detection cannot be done in the frequency domain.
channel. Not possible to use maximum likelihood detection for MIMO
with SC-FDE
SC-FDE less popular than OFDM.

On the whole, OFDM continues to be much more popular On the whole, OFDM continues to be much more popular
 Design Considerations for SC-FDE and OFDM

• Since the performance difference between SC-FDE and OFDM is not that significant,
other considerations are more important in determining which is the appropriate
method to use for a given application. An obvious difference is that SC-FDE has a lower
complexity transmitter but a higher-complexity receiver, compared to OFDM.
• Since the receiver was already considerably more complex than the transmitter in a
typical OFDM system due to channel estimation, synchronization, and the error
correction decoder, this further skews the symmetry:
• In a cellular system like LTE, this asymmetry can be a favorable feature, since the
uplink could utilize SC-FDE & downlink could utilize OFDM.
• In such a situation, the base station would perform 3 IFFT, FFT operations & mobile,
which is more power- and cost-sensitive, would perform only a single FFT operation
(to receive its OFDM waveform from the base station).
 Design Considerations for SC-FDE and OFDM

• Adding in SC-FDE's benefits of reduced PAR & commensurate cost & power savings,
• it appears that the cause for using SC-FDE in the uplink of a wideband data system is
favorable indeed.
• Channel estimation and synchronization are a bit different in practice for an SC FDE
System VS. OFDM system.
• In a typical wireless OFDM System—including LTE, WiMAX, und 802.11a/b/’n
• channel estimation & synchronization are accomplished via a preamble of known data
symbols, & then pilot tones, which are inserted at known positions in all subsequent
OFDM symbols.
• Although SC-FDE systems would include 1 preamble, this perusable is in the time
domain so it is not as straightforward to estimate the frequency domain values H.
• Similarly, it is not possible to insert pilot tones on a per-frame basis.
• As we will see, SC-FDMA Overcomes these potential problems for LTE by using both a
DFT & an IFFT at the transmitter.
 Orthogonal Frequency Division Multiplexing ( OFDM )

OFDM - Basics

The subchannel/subcarrier
frequency
fk = kΔf ,
where Δf is the subcarrier
spacing.
Δf = 15 kHz
Each subcarrier is modulated by
a data symbol and an OFDM
symbol is formed by simply
adding the modulated subcarrier
 Orthogonal Frequency Division Multiplexing ( OFDM )
OFDM - Basics
Multicarrier modulation divides the high rate transit bit stream into L lower rate substreams
Where L is chosen such that each of the subcarrier has effective symbol time
TS L >> TM
TS = symbol time
TM = delay spread ( see slide no-38 of module one)

Block transmission with Guard Intervals

• Basic idea is to insert a guard interval/guard period (GP) before each symbol, in which
nothing is transmitted.
• If the guard period is longer than The delay spread
(𝑇𝑔>𝑇𝑚), then the receiver can be confident of reading information from just one symbol at
a time, without any overlap with the symbols that precede or follow.
 Orthogonal Frequency Division Multiplexing ( OFDM )
OFDM - Basics
 Orthogonal Frequency Division Multiplexing ( OFDM )
OFDM - Basics
The Cyclic Prefix (CP)
• The orthogonality of OFDM subcarriers can be lost when the signal passes
through a time-dispersive radio channel due to inter-OFDM symbol interference.
• LTE uses a slightly more complex technique, known as cyclic prefix (CP)
insertion.
• In cyclic prefix extension, the last part of the OFDM signal is added as cyclic
prefix (CP) in the beginning of the OFDM signal as shown in figure below.
• Here, the transmitter starts by inserting a guard period before each symbol , as
before GP.
However, it then copies data from the end of the symbol following, so as to Fill up
the guard period.
• If the cyclic prefix is longer than the delay spread, then the receiver can still be
confident of reading information from just one symbol at a time.
 Orthogonal Frequency Division Multiplexing ( OFDM )
OFDM - Basics
The Cyclic Prefix (CP)

An illustration of cyclic prefix extension of OFDM signal.

Schematic - 1 Schematic- 2

Normally, LTE uses a cyclic prefix of about 4.7 ms.

 Orthogonal Frequency Division Multiplexing ( OFDM )
OFDM - Basics
The Cyclic Prefix (CP)
 Orthogonal Frequency Division Multiplexing ( OFDM )
OFDM - Basics
Orthogonal Frequency Division Multiplexing ( OFDM )
Orthogonal Frequency Division Multiplexing ( OFDM )
Orthogonal Frequency Division Multiplexing ( OFDM )
Orthogonal Frequency Division Multiplexing ( OFDM )
Orthogonal Frequency Division Multiplexing ( OFDM )
Orthogonal Frequency Division Multiplexing ( OFDM )
Multi Antenna Technique
Multi Antenna Technique
Multi Antenna Technique
 IP based flat network architecture
Flat” here implies fewer nodes and less hierarchical structure for the network.
•The lower cost and lower latency requirements drove the design toward a flat architecture
since fewer nodes obviously implies a lower infrastructure cost.
•It also means fewer interfaces and protocol related processing, and reduced interoperability
testing, which lowers the development and deployment cost.
•The key aspect of LTE flat architecture is that all services, including voice, supported on IP
packet network using IP protocol.
Multi Antenna Technique
Multi Antenna Technique
LTE Network Architecture
LTE Network Architecture
LTE Network Architecture
LTE Network Architecture
LTE Network Architecture