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Introduction

Course Code: CS3507

Course Title: Database Systems
Course Teacher: Tahira Kanwal
Email:tahira.kanwal2791@[Link]
 Books
Database Systems: A Practical Approach to
Design, Implementation, and Management, 6th
Edition by Thomas Connolly and Carolyn Begg

1. Database Systems: The Complete Book,

2nd Edition by Hector Garcia-Molina, Jeffrey
D. Ullman, Jennifer Widom
2. Database System Concepts, 6th Edition by
Avi Silberschatz, Henry F. Korth and
[Link].
3. Database Management Systems, 3rd
Edition by Raghu Ramakrishnan, Johannes
Gehrke
Database Applications Examples
 Enterprise Information
 Sales: customers, products, purchases
 Accounting: payments, receipts, assets
 Human Resources: Information about employees,
salaries, payroll taxes.
 Manufacturing: management of production, inventory,
orders, supply chain.
 Banking and finance
 customer information, accounts, loans, and banking
transactions.
 Credit card transactions
 Finance: sales and purchases of financial instruments
(e.g., stocks and bonds; storing real-time market data
 Universities: registration, grades

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Database Applications Examples (Cont.)

 Airlines: reservations, schedules

 Telecommunication: records of calls, texts, and data
usage, generating monthly bills, maintaining balances
on prepaid calling cards
 Web-based services
 Online retailers: order tracking, customized
recommendations
 Online advertisements
 Document databases
 Navigation systems: For maintaining the locations of
varies places of interest along with the exact routes of
roads, train systems, buses, etc.

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 Purpose of Database Systems
In the early days, database applications were built directly
on top of file systems, which leads to:

 Data redundancy and inconsistency: data is stored in

multiple file formats resulting induplication of information in
different files
 Difficulty in accessing data
 Need to write a new program to carry out each new task
 Data isolation
 Multiple files and formats
 Integrity problems
 Integrity constraints (e.g., account balance > 0)
become “buried” in program code rather than being
stated explicitly
 Hard to add new constraints or change existing ones

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 Purpose of Database Systems
 (Cont.)
Atomicity of updates
 Failures may leave database in an inconsistent state with
partial updates carried out
 Example: Transfer of funds from one account to another
should either complete or not happen at all
 Concurrent access by multiple users
 Concurrent access needed for performance
 Uncontrolled concurrent accesses can lead to inconsistencies
 Ex: Two people reading a balance (say 100) and updating
it by withdrawing money (say 50 each) at the same time
 Security problems
 Hard to provide user access to some, but not all, data

Database systems offer solutions to all the above

problems

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 File-Based System

 Data stored in separate files by applications

 Each application maintains its own files
 Common in older legacy systems

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 Problems with File-Based Systems

 Data redundancy & inconsistency

 Difficulty in accessing data
 Data isolation (separate files)
 Concurrent access anomalies
 Security and integrity limitations

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 Database Approach

 Centralized data managed by DBMS

 Multiple applications share the database
 Provides integrity, security, and backup mechanisms

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 Database Approach — Key
Features

 Centralized control of data

 Reduced redundancy & improved integrity
 Support for concurrent access and transactions
 Data independence (logical & physical)

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File-Based vs Database Approach

 Database
 Feature  File-Based
Approach
 Storage  Separate files  Centralized DB

 Redundancy  High  Low

 Security  Weak  Strong

 Data Sharing  Limited  Easy

 Scalability  Poor  High

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 Advantages vs Disadvantages
(Overview)

 Advantages  Disadvantages

 Improved data sharing  High initial cost

(DBMS/hardware)
 Reduced redundancy  Complexity of management

 Enhanced data security  Need specialized staff

 Improved data consistency  Migration effort from legacy

systems

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 DBMS: Definition & Examples

 DBMS: Software for defining, creating, and

managing databases
 Main functions: storage, retrieval, security,
concurrency control
 Commercial examples: Oracle, SQL Server,
MySQL, PostgreSQL

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Data Models
 A collection of tools for describing
 Data
 Data relationships
 Data semantics
 Data constraints
 Relational model
 Entity-Relationship data model (mainly for database design)
 Object-based data models (Object-oriented and Object-relational)
 Semi-structured data model (XML)
 Other older models:
 Network model
 Hierarchical model

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Relational Model
 All the data is stored in various tables.
 Example of tabular data in the relational model

Columns

Rows

Ted Codd
Turing Award 1981

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A Sample Relational Database

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View of Data

An architecture for a database system

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Instances and Schemas

 Similar to types and variables in programming languages

 Logical Schema – the overall logical structure of the database
 Example: The database consists of information about a set of
customers and accounts in a bank and the relationship
between them
 Analogous to type information of a variable in a program
 Physical schema – the overall physical structure of the
database
 Instance – the actual content of the database at a particular
point in time
 Analogous to the value of a variable

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Physical Data Independence

 Physical Data Independence – the ability to modify

the physical schema without changing the logical
schema
 Applications depend on the logical schema
 In general, the interfaces between the various
levels and components should be well defined so
that changes in some parts do not seriously
influence others.

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Data Definition Language (DDL)
 Specification notation for defining the database schema
Example: create table instructor (
ID char(5),
name varchar(20),
dept_name varchar(20),
salary numeric(8,2))
 DDL compiler generates a set of table templates stored in a
data dictionary
 Data dictionary contains metadata (i.e., data about data)
 Database schema
 Integrity constraints
 Primary key (ID uniquely identifies instructors)
 Authorization
 Who can access what

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 Data Manipulation Language
(DML)
Language for accessing and updating the data
organized by the appropriate data model
 DML also known as query language
 There are basically two types of data-manipulation
language
 Procedural DML -- require a user to specify what
data are needed and how to get those data.
 Declarative DML -- require a user to specify what
data are needed without specifying how to get those
data.
 Declarative DMLs are usually easier to learn and
use than are procedural DMLs.
 Declarative DMLs are also referred to as non-
procedural DMLs
 The portion of a DML that involves information
retrieval is called a query language.

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 SQL Query Language
 SQL query language is nonprocedural. A query takes as
input several tables (possibly only one) and always returns
a single table.
 Example to find all instructors in Comp. Sci. dept
select name
from instructor
where dept_name = 'Comp. Sci.'
 SQL is NOT a Turing machine equivalent language
 To be able to compute complex functions SQL is usually
embedded in some higher-level language
 Application programs generally access databases through
one of
 Language extensions to allow embedded SQL
 Application program interface (e.g., ODBC/JDBC) which
allow SQL queries to be sent to a database

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Database Access from Application
Program
 Non-procedural query languages such as SQL are not as
powerful as a universal Turing machine.
 SQL does not support actions such as input from users,
output to displays, or communication over the network.
 Such computations and actions must be written in a
host language, such as C/C++, Java or Python, with
embedded SQL queries that access the data in the
database.
 Application programs -- are programs that are used
to interact with the database in this fashion.

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Database Design
The process of designing the general structure of the database:
 Logical Design – Deciding on the database schema. Database
design requires that we find a “good” collection of relation
schemas.
 Business decision – What attributes should we record in the
database?
 Computer Science decision – What relation schemas should
we have and how should the attributes be distributed
among the various relation schemas?
 Physical Design – Deciding on the physical layout of the
database

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 Roles in Database Environment

Role Primary Responsibilities

Data Administrator (DA) Policy, data standards, high-level

management
Database Administrator (DBA) Install/maintain DBMS, backups,
tuning
Database Designer Logical & physical schema design

Application Developer Build applications using DBMS

End Users Use applications to perform tasks

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Database Engine
 A database system is partitioned into modules that deal with
each of the responsibilities of the overall system.
 The functional components of a database system can be divided
into
 The storage manager,
 The query processor component,
 The transaction management component.

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Storage Manager
 A program module that provides the interface between the low-
level data stored in the database and the application programs
and queries submitted to the system.
 The storage manager is responsible to the following tasks:
 Interaction with the OS file manager
 Efficient storing, retrieving and updating of data
 The storage manager components include:
 Authorization and integrity manager
 Transaction manager
 File manager
 Buffer manager

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Storage Manager (Cont.)
 The storage manager implements several data structures as part
of the physical system implementation:
 Data files -- store the database itself
 Data dictionary -- stores metadata about the structure of the
database, in particular the schema of the database.
 Indices -- can provide fast access to data items. A database
index provides pointers to those data items that hold a
particular value.

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Query Processor
 The query processor components include:
 DDL interpreter -- interprets DDL statements and records
the definitions in the data dictionary.
 DML compiler -- translates DML statements in a query
language into an evaluation plan consisting of low-level
instructions that the query evaluation engine understands.
 The DML compiler performs query optimization; that is, it
picks the lowest cost evaluation plan from among the
various alternatives.
 Query evaluation engine -- executes low-level instructions
generated by the DML compiler.

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Query Processing
1. Parsing and translation
2. Optimization
3. Evaluation

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Transaction Management
 A transaction is a collection of operations that
performs a single logical function in a database
application
 Transaction-management component ensures that
the database remains in a consistent (correct) state
despite system failures (e.g., power failures and
operating system crashes) and transaction failures.
 Concurrency-control manager controls the
interaction among the concurrent transactions, to
ensure the consistency of the database.

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 Components of the DBMS
Environment

 Hardware: servers, storage, network

 Software: DBMS, utilities, OS
 Data: databases, metadata
 People: DBA, designers, developers, end users
 Procedures: operation policies, backup, recovery

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 DBMS Components and
Architecture
Operating System

Users

DBMS
(Query Processor,
Storage Manager,
Transaction
Manager)

Applications
Physical Storage

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DBMS Components and
Architecture

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Database Architecture
 Centralized databases
 One to a few cores, shared memory
 Client-server,
 One server machine executes work on behalf of multiple
client machines.
 Parallel databases
 Many core shared memory
 Shared disk
 Shared nothing
 Distributed databases
 Geographical distribution
 Schema/data heterogeneity

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Database Architecture
(Centralized/Shared-Memory)

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 Database Applications

Database applications are usually partitioned into two or

three parts
 Two-tier architecture -- the application resides at the
client machine, where it invokes database system
functionality at the server machine
 Three-tier architecture -- the client machine acts as a
front end and does not contain any direct database calls.

 The client end communicates with an application

server, usually through a forms interface.
 The application server in turn communicates with a
database system to access data.

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Two-tier and three-tier
architectures

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Database Users

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Database Administrator
A person who has central control over the system is called a
database administrator (DBA). Functions of a DBA include:
 Schema definition
 Storage structure and access-method definition
 Schema and physical-organization modification
 Granting of authorization for data access
 Routine maintenance
 Periodically backing up the database
 Ensuring that enough free disk space is available for normal
operations, and upgrading disk space as required
 Monitoring jobs running on the database

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 History of Databases

 1960s: File-based systems (Hierarchical & Network

models)
 1970s: Relational Model by E.F. Codd (IBM)
 1980s: Relational DBMSs dominate (Oracle, DB2,
Ingres)
 1990s: Object-Oriented Databases, Data
Warehousing
 2000s: Web-based DBs, XML, and NoSQL databases
emerge
 2010s–Now: Big Data, Cloud Databases, NewSQL,
Graph DBs, AI-integrated DBs

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History of Database Systems
 1950s and early 1960s:
 Data processing using magnetic tapes for storage
 Tapes provided only sequential access
 Punched cards for input
 Late 1960s and 1970s:
 Hard disks allowed direct access to data
 Network and hierarchical data models in widespread use
 Ted Codd defines the relational data model
 Would win the ACM Turing Award for this work
 IBM Research begins System R prototype
 UC Berkeley (Michael Stonebraker) begins Ingres prototype
 Oracle releases first commercial relational database
 High-performance (for the era) transaction processing

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History of Database Systems
(Cont.)
 1980s:
 Research relational prototypes evolve into commercial
systems
 SQL becomes industrial standard
 Parallel and distributed database systems
 Wisconsin, IBM, Teradata
 Object-oriented database systems
 1990s:
 Large decision support and data-mining applications
 Large multi-terabyte data warehouses
 Emergence of Web commerce

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 History of Database Systems

(Cont.)
2000s
 Big data storage systems
 Google BigTable, Yahoo PNuts, Amazon,
 “NoSQL” systems.
 Big data analysis: beyond SQL
 Map reduce and friends
 2010s
 SQL reloaded
 SQL front end to Map Reduce systems
 Massively parallel database systems
 Multi-core main-memory databases

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End of Chapter 1

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