Cells

• Cells are the smallest chemicals

living unit, and the
cells
basic living building
blocks of the body
• Every cell in the body, tissues

as part of a tissue,
organ and/or organ organs
system performs basic
and specialized
functions to maintain
homeostasis
organ systems
organism
 Cell
• The cell is the smallest structural and functional unit capable of
carrying out life processes
• The functional activities of each cell depend on the specific
structural properties of the cells
• Cells are the living building blocks of all multicellular organisms
• An organism’s structure and function ultimately depend on the
collective structural characteristics and functional capabilities of
its cells
• All new cells and new life arise only from preexisting cells
• Because of this continuity of life, the cells of all organisms are
fundamentally similar in structure and function
 Cell Structure Review
• Plasma Membrane
• Nucleus
• Cytoplasm
– cytosol – intracellular fluid
– organelles:
• rough endoplasmic reticulum
• smooth endoplasmic reticulum
• ribosomes
• golgi complex
• vesicles
• lysosomes
• peroxisomes
• mitochondria
• cytoskeleton
• centrioles
• vaults
 Peroxisome
Mitochondria
Free ribosome

Vault
Nuclear pore

Pair of Nucleus
centrioles in Rough ER
centrosome
Ribosome Endoplasmic
(attached to reticulum
Lysosome rough ER)
Smooth ER
Microtubules
radiating from
centrosome Microfilaments
Vesicle
Plasma
membrane
Golgi complex

Cytosol Fig. 2-1, p. 24

 Plasma Membrane
• The Plasma Membrane separates the extracellular fluid (outside
the cell) from the intracellular fluid (inside the cell)
• Structure:
– primarily composed of phospholipid bi-layer
– proteins, cholesterol and carbohydrates float within, span
across, mark the outside, and signal inside the phospholipid
bi-layer
• Selective Permeability:
– controls the entry of nutrients, needed substances, and the
export of products and waste
– protective barrier to prevent entry of unwanted substances or
pathogens
 L
i
p
i
d

b
i
l
a
y
e
r

(c) Separation of ECF and ICF by the lipid bilayer Fig. 3-2c, p. 58
 Nucleus
• The Nucleus houses the DNA
• Structure:
– largest single organelle, spherical, near the center
– surrounded by double-layered membrane called the nuclear
envelope, which has nuclear pores, small openings to allow
some molecules into and out of the nucleus
• Houses DNA:
– DNA is the genetic material, directing protein synthesis and
serving as a genetic blueprint during cell replication
 Cytosol
• The cytosol is the majority of the intracellular fluid
• Structure:
– semi-liquid, gel-like fluid containing molecules, ions, water,
and other substances used and produced by the cell
 Vesicles
• Some molecules should not or cannot float freely in the cytosol,
for these molecules, vesicles are used.
• Vesicles are membrane bound “bubbles” that contain
concentrations of molecules being carried throughout the cell.
 Endoplasmic Reticulum
• The Rough ER is the “factory” of the cell
• Structure:
– fluid-filled membranous system distributed throughout the
cell composed of Rough ER and Smooth ER
– Rough ER – stacks of membranes covered in ribosomes
– Smooth ER – meshwork of tubules connected to Rough ER,
but with no ribosomes
• Macromolecule synthesis:
– Rough ER – synthesizes and releases new proteins
(hormones, enzymes, membrane proteins), synthesizes lipids
(membrane phospholipids, fats)
– Smooth ER – storage and transport of “raw material” proteins
and lipids made by rough ER into small transport vesicles to
be sent to the Golgi
 Rough ER
Smooth ER

Rough ER lumen
Smooth ER lumen

Ribosomes

Sacs Tubules

(a) Rough ER (b) Smooth ER

Rough ER lumen Ribosomes Smooth ER lumen

Fig. 2-2, p. 26
 Golgi Complex
• The Golgi is the “mail room” of the cell
• Structure:
– flattened stacks of membrane closely associated with the ER
• Macromolecule processing, packaging and export:
– processes proteins from the ER, modifies protein structure
– sorting and segregating products of similar function
– packages products into large secretory vesicles marked for
their final destination by surface marker proteins.
 Golgi complex
Transport
vesicle from
ER, about to
Golgi
fuse with the
lumen
Golgi membrane

Golgi
Vesicles containing
sacs
finished product

Golgi complex

Fig. 2-4, p. 28
 Proteins
(colored
strands)
Instructions for are assembled
on ribosomes
Building proteins leave the
attached to the
nucleus and enter ER or free in
the cytoplasm. the cytoplasm.
Nucleus
Ribosomes
1

Rough
ER

Smooth
ER
2

Transport
vesicles
3

Golgi complex

Secretory
4
vesicles

7 5
6

Lysosome
Secretion
(exocytosis)

Fig. 2-3, p. 27
 Lysosomes
• Lysosomes are “digestive garbage cans”
• Structure:
– membrane enclosed, spherical shape, filled with harsh,
degradative, digesting enzymes
• Molecular breakdown:
– engulf worn out cellular material and pathogens via
phagocytosis
– about 40 different hydrolytic enzymes break down cell debris,
organic molecules, bacteria, pathogens
 Peroxisomes
• Peroxisomes are cell detoxifiers
• Structure:
– membrane enclosed, spherical shape, filled with oxidative
enzymes
• Antioxidant Detoxification:
– concentrate and break down hydrogen peroxide (H2O2) to
prevent cell damage
– uses oxidative enzymes to breakdown other harmful
molecules such as alcohol, toxins
 Peroxisome

Lysosome

Oxidative
enzymes
Hydrolytic
enzymes

Fig. 2-7, p. 30
 Mitochondria
• Mitochondria produce energy in the form of ATP
• Structure:
– double-membrane enclosed, rod-shaped large
– contain their own DNA, inner compartments made up of
stacks called cristae with an inner gel-like matrix
• ATP production:
– converts nutrients into ATP during cellular respiration using
specialized proteins and enzymes found within the
mitochondrial matrix and mitochondrial membrane
 Mitochondrion

Intermembrane
space
Cristae

Proteins of Inner Matrix Outer

electron mitochondrial mitochondrial
transport membrane membrane
system

Cristae

Fig. 2-9, p. 33
 Cytoskeleton
• The cytoskeleton provides structural framework for the cell
• Structure:
– interconnected network of fibrous and tubular proteins,
linked together in chains like in internal skeleton
– 3 types:
• Microtubules: made of tubulin protein
• Microfilaments: made of actin and/or myosin protein
• Intermediate Filaments: made of threadlike proteins
• Scaffolding and Structural support:
– gives the cells its specific shape, provides framework for
organelles to move along and hold onto
– internal organization
– provide movement, form movement-related structures
 Centrioles
• The centrioles are central cytoskeleton organization centers
• Structure:
– short, cylindrical structures made up of microtubules
• Movement of Materials and Cell Division:
– anchor organelles, form microtubule highways that can
transport vesicles
– can form cilia and flagella for cellular movement
– form mitotic spindle during cell division to move
chromosomes
 Vaults
• Vaults are likely to be mRNA and protein transporters from
nuclear pores to cellular organelles, but are still being researched
• Structure:
– hollow, octagonal barrel shaped, with holes similar to nuclear
pores
• mRNA and protein transport?:
– may dock onto nuclear pores, carry RNA, protein materials
from the nucleus to cellular organelles
– research ongoing (discovered in 1990’s)
 Membrane Transport
• The plasma membrane and membranous organelles all form
selective barriers where passage of substances in and out is
tightly controlled
• In order to survive, every cell must maintain a specific
composition of fluid, molecules inside the cell, export secretions
and remove waste and harmful substances
• Membrane Transport is the movement of substances across a
membrane (in or out)
 Membrane Structure
• The plasma membrane contains:
– phospholipids
– cholesterol
– carbohydrates
– proteins

proteins

cholesterol
p
h
o
s
p
h
o
l
i
p
i
d
c
a
r
b
o
h
y
d
r
a
t
e
 The Fluid Mosaic Model
• The Fluid Mosaic Model: The phospholipids form a fluid bi-layer within
which each of the other molecules attaches to and float like iceburgs on
an ocean
• Cholesterol contributes to the fluidity and stability of the phospholipid
bi-layer, nestling within the fatty acid chains of the phospholipids
• Carbohydrates act as signaling or identification tags for the outside of
the membrane
• Proteins make up over half of the weight of the membrane, and have
many functions depending on whether they sit on top (peripheral
proteins), span across (transmembrane proteins), or layer inside the
membrane.
Head
(negatively
charged, polar,
hydrophilic)

Tails
(uncharged,
nonpolar,
hydrophobic)

(a) Phospholipid molecule

Fig. 3-2a, p. 58
 ECF (water)
Polar heads
(hydrophilic)

Nonpolar tails
Lipid bilayer
(hydrophobic)

Polar heads
(hydrophilic)
ICF (water)

(b) Organization of phospholipids

into a bilayer in water

Fig. 3-2b, p. 58
 Membrane Selectivity
• The molecular structure of the plasma membrane is the key to
selective permeability
• phospholipids: double layered barrier that allows only small,
non-polar (lipids, steroids, etc) across
– outer region: polar heads are hydrophilic (attract charged molecules,
water)
– center span: hydrophobic tails are hydrophobic (repel charged molecules,
prefer lipids, separate from water)
• proteins: some proteins form channels across the membrane
that are selectively gated to allow large, charged molecules
through
– integral or transmembrane proteins
– channels are highly specific, tightly controlled, and “gated” by many
different processes
 Lipid bilayer

Intracellular
fluid

Extracellular
fluid

(c) Separation of ECF and ICF by the lipid bilayer Fig. 3-2c, p. 58
 Protein Channels
• transmembrane proteins can form channels across the
membrane to allow substances to pass across the membrane
• ion channels: tiny openings, specific amino acid composition only
allows specific ions through (ex: Na+ channels, K+ channels)
– leaky ion channels: always open, ion of choice can leak in and out
based on gradients
– gated ion channels: channel changes shape in response to a
specific cue, gate opens to allow ion through, only then can it move
with its gradient
• water channels: water is allowed in and out of the cell through
specific pores called aquaporins
• large molecule channels: large, specific openings to allow large
molecules in and out (ex: Glucose channels)
 Protein Carriers or Transporters
• Some transmembrane proteins can form carriers/transporters,
moving substances in and out of the cell with the use of other
molecules
– cotransporters: similar to channels, highly selective, but require
other molecules as “trade” for the molecule that is being
transported (ex: Glucose/Na+ cotransporter, swaps glucose IN for
Na+ OUT)
– pumps: similar to channels, highly selective, but transport
molecules regardless of gradients (ex: Na+/K+ pump, swaps K+ IN
for Na+ OUT)
 Peripheral Proteins
• Peripheral proteins are located only on the surface of the cell (on
the polar heads) and serve many functions:
• Surface receptors or signaling proteins: recognize and bind to
molecules in the environment outside the cell (ECF), send signals
to the inside of the cell to communicate external changes
• Internal signaling proteins: recognize and bind to molecules
inside the cell (ICF) to communicate internal changes, coordinate
responses such as secretion
• Surface enzymes: breakdown molecules in the environment
outside of the cell (ECF) to stop signals, control external chemical
reactions
• Cell adhesion molecules: interlock groups of cells together to
hold tissues and organs together, communicate with nearby cells
 ECF Dark line
Integral Carbohydrate Appearance
proteins chain Light
using an electron space
microscope
Phospholipid Dark line
molecule
Glycolipid Glycolipid

Receptor
protein

Lipid Cholesterol Leak

bilayer molecule channel
protein Cell adhesion Carrier Microfilament
Gated channel Proteins molecule (linking protein of cytoskeleton
protein microtubule to
ICF membrane)

Fig. 3-3, p. 59
 Types of Membrane Transport
• Membrane Transport is the movement of substances across a
membrane (in or out)
• Passive membrane transport: substances move across the
bilayer, or through channels without need for energy
– Simple Diffusion
– Osmosis
– Facilitated Diffusion
• Active membrane transport: substance movement through
channels or carriers requires energy in the form of ATP
– Primary Active Transport
– Secondary Active Transport
• Symport
• Antiport
– Vesicular Transport
• Endocytosis
• Exocytosis
 Passive Membrane Transport
• Passive membrane transport: substances move across the
bilayer, or through channels without need for energy
• Molecules move passively when there is a gradient across the
membrane
• There are 2 types of gradients:
– concentration gradient
– electrical gradient
• There is an overall natural driving force toward equilibrium; the
equal distribution of charge and/or concentration of a molecule
• Molecules are always moving, the overall direction of movement
is called NET movement. With a gradient, there will be NET
movement into or out of the cell.
• At equilibrium, there will be ZERO net movement, or equal
chance of movement into or out of the cell.
 Gradients
• concentration gradient: more molecules of specific substance
located in one region vs. another
– “down” a gradient, means to move from high to low concentration
– “against” a gradient means to move from low to high concentration (this
requires energy)
– specific to each molecule, other molecules are generally ignored
• electrical gradient: more positively charged molecules (ions) in
one region vs. another
– opposites attract: negative ions will move toward a concentration of
positive ions
– equal charge distribution, just like concentration, positive ions will move
from high positive regions to lowly positive regions
– specific to charge, not molecules, any molecule with charge participates in
the gradient
 Electrical Gradient
out in
positive
gradient:
driving force
moving
NET
RESULT:
positive
ions want to
move IN the
cell
out in
equilibrium:
charge inside
and outside of
the cell is
equally
distributed
NET RESULT:
equal IN/OUT
movement of
ions

Fig. 3-19b, p. 81
 Concentration Gradient
Area A Area B
positive
gradient: higher
concentration of
molecule in A
vs. B
NET RESULT:
molecule moves
from A to B

Area A Area B
equilibrium:
molecule is
equally distributed
NET RESULT:
equal movement
of molecule A to B
and B to A
 Types of Passive Transport

• Simple Diffusion
• Osmosis
• Facilitated Diffusion
 Simple Diffusion
• Simple Diffusion: passive
movement of molecules from out in
a region of high concentration membrane
to a region of low
concentration
• simple diffusion across a
membrane: molecules that are
small, non-polar can cross the
phospholipid bilayer, and will
move from high to low
concentration directly across
without energy or channels
– the membrane is permeable to NET diffusion IN
small, non-polar molecules
 Fick’s Law of Diffusion
Fick’s Law of diffusion states that simple diffusion is affected by
5 factors:
1. The magnitude of the concentration gradient
– greater magnitude, higher rate of diffusion
2. The surface area of the membrane
– greater surface area, higher rate of diffusion
3. The lipid solubility of the substance
– greater lipid solubility, higher rate of diffusion
4. The molecular weight of the substance
– increased molecular weight, decreased rate of diffusion
5. The distance through which diffusion needs to take place
– increased distance, decreased rate of diffusion
 Facilitated Diffusion
• Facilitated Diffusion: passive
movement of molecules from out in
a region of high concentration membrane
to a region of low
concentration using a channel
• facilitated diffusion across a
membrane: molecules that are
large or polar cannot cross the
phospholipid bilayer without a
channel, but with a channel
will move from high to low Molecule driving force IN,
concentration without energy but cannot move in without a
channel, will move passively
– channels allow large or polar
where a channel is present
molecules across
 • Facilitated Diffusion uses carrier/channel proteins to move
molecules down their gradients

high concentration molecule carrier changes molecule enters

outside selectively binds shape to bring the cell
to carrier molecule in
out

in
3

NO ENERGY REQUIRED!

Fig. 3-14, p. 72
 Facilitated Diffusion Limits
• Facilitated Diffusion: is limited
by the number of channels out in
present membrane
• Molecules must “wait their
turn” if not enough channels
are present to allow
movement across the
membrane, this sets a
maximum transport capability,
also called a transport
maximum, or Tmax more channels present
relative to molecules that
• if all the channels are full, then need to cross allows more
saturation has been reached, movement, fewer channels
the rate of transport cannot limits movement
increase until channels are
added
 Simple diffusion
down concentration
gradient (no Tmax)
Rate of transport of molecule into cell

high diffusion at high concentration

Facilitated diffusion
down concentration
gradient limited by
Tmax

low diffusion at low concentration

Low High
Concentration of transported molecules in ECF
Fig. 3-15, p. 73
 Osmosis
• Osmosis: passive movement of
water down its concentration membrane
gradient out in
• depends on solute
concentration
– solution: solute + solvent mixed
together
– solute: molecules in solution
– solvent: water
• Water will move from an area
of higher water (lower solute) 1) More water outside the
cell, water will move in
to an area of lower water (high
2) More solute inside,
solute) concentration water will move in.

“Water follows solutes”

 Osmosis Terms
• osmolarity: the total concentration of solutes per liter of solution,
high osmolarity attracts water
– expressed in molecules per Liter, written as osmoles (Osm/L) or in small
amounts milliosmoles (mOsm/L)
• tonicity: the concentration of a solution relative to the cell
• hypertonic: HIGH solute concentration of solution, relative to the
inside of the cell, water leaves the cell, cell shrinks
• hypotonic: LOW solute concentration of solution, relative to the
inside of the cell, water enters the cell, cell swells
• isotonic: equal solute concentration of solution, relative to the
inside of the cell, cell is healthy
 Normal cell volume
Intracellular fluid 300 mOsm/L
nonpenetrating solutes

ISOTONIC HYPOTONIC HYPERTONIC

CONDITIONS CONDITIONS CONDITIONS

H2O H 2O

Solution: 300 mOsm/L 200 mOsm/L 400 mOsm/L

Net No net movement Water diffuses into Water diffuses out of

of water; no change cells; cells swell. cells; cells shrink.
osmosis: in cell volume.

Fig. 3-13, p. 71
 Homeostasis of Osmolarity
• Recall that fluid balance is a major factor regulated by homeostasis
• The kidneys carefully regulate the composition of water and solutes
in the blood which will bathe the body tissues
• In other words, the kidneys regulate the osmolarity of blood, so
that ECF is isotonic to the osmolarity of the ICF within body cells in
order to keep cells healthy
• MORE on this later!
 Osmotic vs. Hydrostatic Pressure
• Two forces make the equilibrium of water more complex, where
the volume of water can also have an effect on equilibrium:
• osmotic pressure: the force of water moving toward solutes,
solutes “pull” the water towards them
– the majority of cases in the body will only depend on osmotic pressure
• hydrostatic pressure: the force of water volume against a barrier,
water “pulls” water towards itself
– hydrostatic pressure is mainly a factor in certain conditions, when space for
cell expansion is limited
 Active Transport
• Active membrane transport: movement of a molecule against its
concentration gradient, requires channels/carriers AND energy in
the form of ATP
• used when a cell needs to move a substance in, no matter its
gradient (example: nutrients), when it needs to remove a
substance no matter its gradient (example: waste, toxins,
secretions), or as pumps to set up or replenish certain gradients
• ATP = adenosine tri-phosphate; has 3 high energy phosphate
bonds, energy is released when a phosphate bond is broken and
ADP is formed
ATP → ADP + Pi + energy
• Molecules that split phosphates from ATP are called ATPases
 Types of Active Transport
• Primary Active Transport
• Secondary Active Transport
– Symport
– Antiport
• Vesicular Transport
– Endocytosis
– Exocytosis
 Primary Active Transport
• Primary Active transport: a carrier protein splits ATP directly in
order to move a molecule against its concentration gradient
• often called “pumps”
• most common in biology is the Na/K pump, which uses an internal
ATPase for energy to pump 3 molecules of Na+ out of the cell for
every 2 molecules of K+ into the cell

2 K+
out

in
3 Na+ intrinsic ATPase activity
 Secondary Active Transport
• Secondary Active transport: a molecule against its concentration gradient using the
concentration gradient of another molecule, which indirectly required ATP to set up
• often uses Na+ gradients, or other ion gradients
• symport: molecule moves in the same direction as its partner ion, “piggyback”,
cotransport
• antiport: molecule moves in the opposite direction of its partner ion, “swap”,
exchange, countertransport

symport antiport
 Driving ion Transported
in high solute in low
concentration concentration

Driving ion Transported

in low solute in high
concentration concentration

(a) Symport Fig. 3-17a, p. 77

 Driving ion Transported
in high solute in high
concentration concentration

Driving ion Transported

in low solute in low
concentration concentration

(b) Antiport Fig. 3-17b, p. 77

 Primary & Secondary work together
• Secondary Active Transport requires Primary active transporters to
establish concentration gradients first

Lumen Glucose
Na+ Na+
high low high
example:
nutrient SGLT (sodium
absorption glucose
transporter)
in the small
Glucose Na+
intestine high low
Na+
low
Na+–K+
pump
Na+
)
high

Primary Active Transport Secondary Active Transport

Na/K pump Gradient of High
establishes Na+ Na+ is used to drive
concentration glucose into the
gradient outside of cell through a
the cell (lumen) symporter
 Vesicular Transport
• Vesicular Transport: movement of molecules or groups of
molecules in and out of the membrane using vesicles
• used when molecules are too large to pass through channels, for
moving high quantities, or for engulfing bacteria or large
substances
• endocytosis: vesicles release their contents IN to the cell
• exocytosis: vesicles release their contents OUT of the cell
 Endocytosis
• endocytosis: vesicles release their contents IN to the cell
– pinocytosis: uptake of ECF
– phagocytosis: large particles, debris, or pathogens engulfed
– receptor mediated endocytosis: specific uptake of target
molecules via surface protein receptors

Solute
molecule
Plasma
membrane
 Endocytosis: Pinocytosis

Late
Cytosol ECF forming
endocytic
Water pouch
Molecule
Endocytic
Solute vesicle
molecule
Plasma
Plasma
membrane
membrane
Early
Solute molecules and Membrane pockets inward, Pocket pinches off forming
water molecules are enclosing as endocytic vesicle endocytic
Outside the plasma solute molecules containing sample of ECF. pouch
membrane. and water molecules.

(a) Pinocytosis

Fig. 2-8, p. 31
 Endocytosis: Phagocytosis
Lysosome

Pseudopod Prey Endocytic

vesicle
Pseudopods begin Pseudopods close Prey is enclosed in Lysosome fuses with
to surround prey. around prey. endocytic vesicle that vesicle, releasing enzymes
Worn-out sinks into cytoplasm. that attack material inside
red blood White vesicle.
cell blood cell

(c) Phagocytosis

Fig. 2-8, p. 31
 Endocytosis: Receptor-Mediated

Molecules
Cytosol ECF bound to
surface
Clathrin
receptors
Target
molecule Coated
pit
Clathrin
Receptor
Plasma coat
membrane
Plasma
Substances attach to Pocket pinches off membrane
Membrane pockets
membrane receptors. inward. as endocytic vesicle
containing target molecule.

(b) Receptor-mediated endocytosis

Fig. 2-8, p. 31
 Exocytosis
• exocytosis: vesicles release their contents OUT of the cell
– secretion: release of products made by the cell

Extracellular fluid

Plasma membrane

Secretory vesicle

Cytosol

(a) Exocytosis: A secretory vesicle fuses with the plasma

membrane, releasing the vesicle contents to the cell exterior.
The vesicle membrane becomes part of the plasma
membrane.
The End