GENERATION AND DISTRIBUTION OF ELECTRIC POWER

SIMPLIFIED OVERVIEW

Eng. Essam Hamed:PREPARED

BY
 Electric
power
 Electric power, often known as power or electricity, involves the production and
delivery of electrical energy in sufficient quantities to operate domestic appliances,
office equipment, industrial machinery and provide sufficient energy for both
domestic and commercial lighting, heating, cooking and industrial processes.
 The following slides show briefly the journey of electrical power from the
generation stage until it reaches to the end consumers.
 CONTENTS

- GENERATION OF ELECRTICITY
- INTRODUCTION TO METHODS OF GENERATION

- FFPP
- NPP
- HYDROELECTRICITY
- DIESEL ENGINE

- TRANSMISSION OF ELECTRICITY

- TRANSMISSION CIRCUITS (DESIGN & CONSTRUCTION)

- OHTL (BARE CONDUCTORS & ABC NETWORKS)

- CABLES (MV & LV)

- SUBSTATIONS (33 Kv SWG, 11 Kv SWG)

- DISTRIBUTION OF ELECTRICITY

-POWER & DISTRIBUTION TRANSFORMERS

- KIOSKS
- RELATED TOPICS

- POWER FACTOR CORRECTION

- EARTHING SYSTEMS
 1- Generation of Electricity

Electricity generation is the first process in the delivery of electricity to

consumers. The other three processes are electric power transmission,
electricity distribution and electricity retailing.
Electricity has been generated for the purpose of powering human technologies for
at least 120 years from various sources of potential energy. The first power plants
were run on wood, while today we rely mainly on oil, natural gas, coal,
hydroelectric and nuclear power and a small amount from hydrogen, solar energy,
tidal harnesses, and wind generators.
1-1 Methods of generating electricity

Rotating turbines attached to electrical generators produce most commercially

available electricity. Turbines may be driven by using steam, water, wind or other
fluids as an intermediate energy carrier. The most common usage is by steam in
fossil fuel power plants or nuclear power plants, and by water in hydroelectric dams.
Small mobile generators are often driven by diesel engines, especially on ships,
remote building sites or for emergency standby.
 1-1-1 Fossil fuel power plant

 A fossil fuel power plant(FFPP) (also known as steam electric power plant in the
US, thermal power plant in Asia, or power station in the UK) is an energy
conversion center designed on a large scale for continuous operation. Just as a
battery converts relatively small amounts of chemical energy into electricity for
temporary or intermittent use, the FFPP converts the sun's energy stored in
fossil fuels such as coal, oil, or natural gas successively into thermal energy,
mechanical energy, and finally electric energy for continuous use and distribution
across a wide geographic area. Each FFPP is a highly complex, custom designed
system. Present construction costs (2004) run to $1300/kW, or $650 million USD
for a 500 MWe unit. Multiple generating units may be built at a single site for more
efficient use of land, resources, and labor.
 1-1-2 Nuclear power plant

 A nuclear power plant (NPP) is a thermal power station in which the heat source is
one or more nuclear reactors. Nuclear power plants are base load stations, which
work best when the power output is constant. Their units range in power from about
40 MWe to almost 2000 MWe, typical of new units under construction in 2005
being in the range 600-1200 MWe.

A nuclear power plant in Cattenom, France. Most

obvious in this picture are the large cooling towers.
The two cylindrical buildings in the center house the
nuclear reactors
 1-1-3 Hydroelectricity

 Hydroelectricity, or hydroelectric power, is a form of hydropower, (i.e.,the use of

energy released by water falling, flowing downhill, moving tidally, or moving in
some other way) to produce electricity. Specifically, the kinetic energy of the
moving water is converted to electrical energy by a water turbine driving a
generator. Most hydroelectric power is currently generated from water flowing
downhill, but a few tidal harnesses exist that draw power from the tide.
Hydroelectric power is generated at dams or other places where water descends
from a height, or coasts with a large tidal swing (such as the Bay of Fundy).
Hydroelectricity is a renewable energy source, since the water that flows in rivers
has come from precipitation such as rain or snow, and tides are driven by the
rotation of the earth.
Hydroelectric dam in cross section
Itaipu Dam
Itaipu is a dam that includes the largest hydroelectric power plant in
the world. It is situated between Brazil and Paraguay along the
Paraná River.
The plant consists of 18 generator units of 700 MW (megawatts)
each, allowing for a total output of 12,600 MW of power.
 1-1-4 Diesel engine

 The diesel engine is a type of internal combustion engine in which the fuel is
ignited by being suddenly exposed to the high temperature and pressure of a
compressed gas containing oxygen (usually atmospheric air), rather than a separate
source of ignition energy (such as a spark plug).
 The vast majority of modern heavy road vehicles (trucks), ships, long-distance
locomotives, large-scale portable power generators, and most farm and mining
vehicles have diesel engines.
 2- Transmission of Electricity

Electric power transmission is the second process in the delivery of

electricity to consumers. Electrical energy is generated by power plants and
is then sold as a commodity to end consumers by retailers. The electric
energy transmission and electricty ditribution networks allow the delivery
of the generated electricity to consumers. The rapid industrialization in the
20th century made electrical transmission lines and grids a critical part of the
economic infrastructure in most industrialized nations.
A transmission grid is made up of :
2-1 transmission circuits, and 2-2 power
substations. Energy is usually transmitted on the
grid with 3-phase alternatig current (AC). The voltage level on the bulk
power transmission system is typically between 115 kV and 765 kV. Energy
may also be transmitted using high voltage direct current.
Electricity is usually sent over long distance through a combination of
overhead power transmission lines and buried cables
2-1-1 Over head transmission lines (OHTL)
A transmission line is the material meduim or structure that forms all or part of a
path from one place to another for directing the transmission of energy, such as
electromagnetic wave or acoustic waves. Example of transmission lines is wires.
 There are different types of over head conductors. The choice depends on the
application. The following shows some of over head conductors types:

 Bare soft and hard drawn stranded

Soft drawn type is used for grounding

electrical systems, while hard drawn
type is used in over head distribution
networks.

 All aluminium conductors

used for aerial distribute lines have

relatively short spans, aerial feeders
and bus bars of substations.
 All aluminium alloy conductors

used for transmission and distribution

networks, having relatively long spans.

 Aluminium conductor steel reinforced

used for power transmission over long
distances
 Conductors Comparison Between Different Types of
Aluminum

)for 185 mm2 Conductor as an example(

AAC AAAC ACSR

Tensile (KN) 43.66 71.55 85.12
Weight (Kg/Km) 671.1 670.3 980.1
 2-1-2 Cables

 Power cable (a type of electrical cable) is an assembly of two or more electrical

conductors held together with, and typically covered with, an overall sheath. The
conductors may be of the same or different sizes, each with their own insulation and
possibly a bare conductor. Larger single conductor insulated cables are also called
power cables in the trade. The sheath may be of metal, plastic, ceramic, shielded,
sunlight-resistant, waterproof, oil-resistant, fire-retardant, flat or round, and may
also contain structural supports made of high-strength materials.
:Cables are usually classified according to their operating voltage as follows

1. Low voltage cables (up to 1kv).

2. Medium voltage cables (3kv up to 30kv).

3. High voltage cables (66kv up to 500kv).

 1- Cable
Construction

The general construction of the cable is given

:below

[Link]

[Link]

[Link]

[Link]

[Link]

[Link]
Conductors

Comparison Between Copper And Aluminum

Aluminum requires larger conductor sizes to carry the same current as copper. For equivalent
.capacity, aluminum cable is lighter in weight and larger in diameter than copper cable
 Comparison between single core and multicore cables:
For same cross sectional area, single core cables Ampacity is greater than that
of multi-core cables. But from economics point of view multicore cables are
preferred.
 Insulation

The selection of a particular type of insulation to be used depends upon the purpose for which
the cable is required and qualities of insulation to be aimed at. The following are the chief
types of insulation groups that can be used:
1. Rubber
2. Polyethylene
3. Polyvinyl chloride (PVC)
4. Fibrous material
5. Silk, cotton, enamel.
6. XLPE
Armouring
Steel-Tape Armouring
A steel tape is provided over the bedding but They are not very flexible, and their use
is limited where bending of the cables cannot be avoided.

Wire Armouring
It has been found that a single layer of wire Armouring provides better mechanical
protection as against two layers of steel tape.
SINGLE CONDUCTOR CABLES

PROBLEMS OF INDUCED VOLTAGES

AND CURRENTS ASSOCIATED
.WITH THEIR USE
PROBLEMS OF INDUCED VOLTAGES AND CURRENTS
ASSOCIATED WITH THEIR USE

The
The increased
increased ampacity
ampacity requirements
requirements and
and short-circuit
short-circuit
capabilities
capabilities of
of modern
modern power
power systems
systems have
have some
some
.problems

It has become evident that there is a need for cable

engineer to select the sheath-bonding method to fit a
.particular installation
PROBLEMS OF INDUCED VOLTAGES AND CURRENTS
ASSOCIATED WITH THEIR USE

Polymeric-Insulated
Polymeric-Insulated Cables
Cables has
has aa metallic
metallic Path
Path for
for the
the
fault
.current return

:The metallic path in the form of

Helically applied wires or tapes .a
Solid metallic sheath .b
.Combination between a and b .c
 PROBLEMS OF INDUCED VOLTAGES AND CURRENTS
ASSOCIATED WITH THEIR USE

Bonding Methods
Solidly
Solidly bonded
bonded and
and grounded
grounded sheaths
sheaths are
are the
the simplest
simplest
.solution to the problem of sheath voltages

.Induced voltage will cause a circulating current to flow

.This current generates losses that appear as a heat
These metal sheath losses reduce the amount of heat that
.can be assigned to the phase conductor

Various methods of bonding may be used for the purpose

.of minimizing sheath losses
 PROBLEMS OF INDUCED VOLTAGES AND CURRENTS
ASSOCIATED WITH THEIR USE

Special Bonding Methods

The metallic sheath of a single conductor cable for a.c
.service acts as a secondary of a transformer
The current in the conductor induces a voltage in the
.sheath
The induced voltage causes current to flow in the
.completed circuit
Losses can be considered as a significance value
.affecting conductor ampacity
 PROBLEMS OF INDUCED VOLTAGES AND CURRENTS
ASSOCIATED WITH THEIR USE

This
This problem
problem ofof sheath
sheath losses
losses becomes
becomes particularly
particularly
important when
important when large
large single
single conductor
conductor cables
cables comprising
comprising
aa circuit
circuit are
are placed
placed in
in separate
separate ducts,
ducts, or
or spacing
spacing between
between
directly
directly buried
buried cables
cables is
is increased
increased to
to reduce
reduce the
the effects
effects of
of
.mutual heating

The major purpose of special sheath bonding for single

conductor cables is the prevention or reduction of sheath
.losses
PROBLEMS OF INDUCED VOLTAGES AND CURRENTS
ASSOCIATED WITH THEIR USE

Any sheath bonding or grounding method must perform

: the following functions

.Limit sheath voltage .1

.Reduce or eliminate sheath losses .2
Maintain a continuous sheath circuit to permit fault .3
.current return
 PROBLEMS OF INDUCED VOLTAGES AND CURRENTS
ASSOCIATED WITH THEIR USE

:Conclusion
There is no clear-cut point at which special bonding
should be introduced and the extra cost of the larger
conductor size cables needed for a solidly bonded
system must be balanced against the cost of
additional equipment and the maintenance cost
arising from the grater complexity of a specially
.bonded systems
 PROBLEMS OF INDUCED VOLTAGES AND CURRENTS
ASSOCIATED WITH THEIR USE

Special bonding systems

Single Point Bonding
The
The simplest
simplest form
form of
of single
single point
point bonding
bonding consists
consists in
in
arranging
arranging for
for the
the sheaths
sheaths of
of the
the three
three cables
cables to
to be
be
.connected and grounded at one point only

At all other points a voltage will appear from sheath to

ground that will be maximum at the farthest point from
.the ground point
 PROBLEMS OF INDUCED VOLTAGES AND CURRENTS
ASSOCIATED WITH THEIR USE

It
It is
is recognized
recognized that
that this
this voltage
voltage will
will be
be greatly
greatly exceeded
exceeded
.during system transients and short circuits
Maximum sheath voltage permitted at full load varies
.between countries

When the circuit length is such that the sheath voltage

limitation is exceeded at one end of the circuit, this
bond may be connected at some other point, for
.example the center of the length
 PROBLEMS OF INDUCED VOLTAGES AND CURRENTS
ASSOCIATED WITH THEIR USE

.Single-Point Grounding near the center of cable run

 PROBLEMS OF INDUCED VOLTAGES AND CURRENTS
ASSOCIATED WITH THEIR USE

Parallel Ground Continuity Conductor

During
-Duringaaground
groundfault
faulton
onthe
thepower
powersystem
systemthe
thezero-
zero
sequence current carried by the cable conductor
.returns by whatever external paths are available

Since a single-point bonded cable sheath is grounded at

one position only, it cannot expect in the case of a
.cable fault carry any of the returning current

A Parallel external conductor is available or is provided to

serve as an alternative path and this conductor is
grounded at both ends of the route. The size of the
conductor must be suitable to carry the full expected
.fault current for the cable system
 PROBLEMS OF INDUCED VOLTAGES AND CURRENTS
ASSOCIATED WITH THEIR USE

The
The parallel
parallel ground
ground continuity
continuity conductor
conductor will
will be
be subject
subject to
to
voltage
voltage induction
induction for
for power
power cables
cables in
in the
the same
same way.
way. To
To
avoid
avoid circulating
circulating currents
currents and
and losses
losses in
in this
this conductor
conductor itit
,is preferable when
is preferable when the
the power
power cables
cables are
are not
not transposed,
transposed
.to transpose the parallel ground continuity conductor
PROBLEMS OF INDUCED VOLTAGES AND CURRENTS
ASSOCIATED WITH THEIR USE
 PROBLEMS OF INDUCED VOLTAGES AND CURRENTS
ASSOCIATED WITH THEIR USE

Cross Bonding
Cross
Cross bonding
bonding consists
consists essentially
essentially in
in sectionalizing
sectionalizing the
the
sheaths
sheaths into
into minor
minor sections
sections and
and cross
cross connecting
connecting them
them
so
so as
as to
to neutralize
neutralize the
the total
total induced
induced voltage
voltage in
in each
each
.three consecutive sections
 PROBLEMS OF INDUCED VOLTAGES AND CURRENTS
ASSOCIATED WITH THEIR USE

Sectionalized
Sectionalized cross
cross bonding
bonding cancan be
be achieved
achieved when
when the
the
number
number of
of sections
sections isis divisible
divisible exactly
exactly by
by 3,
3, the
the circuit
circuit
can
can be
be arranged
arranged toto consist
consist ofof one
one or
or more
more major
major
sections
sections and
and at
at the
the ends
ends ofof the
the circuit,
circuit, the
the sheaths
sheaths are
are
.bonded together and grounded

Although the grounds at the junctions of major sections

.will generally be local ground rods
PROTECTION OF SPECIALLY BONDED
CABLE SYSTEMS AGAINST SHEATH
OVER VOLTAGES
PROTECTION OF SPECIALLY BONDED CABLE SYSTEMS
AGAINST SHEATH OVER VOLTAGES

In Case of Special Bonding System

Single point bonded
Cross bonding

There
There is
is aa need
need for
for sheath
sheath over
over voltage
voltage protection
protection (sheath
(sheath
.)voltage limiters
voltage limiters)
PROTECTION OF SPECIALLY BONDED CABLE SYSTEMS
AGAINST SHEATH OVER VOLTAGES

Types of Sheath Voltage Limiters (SVL)

Spark gaps
Surge arresters
Silicon carbide non-linear resistor in series with spark (
)gap
Silicon carbide non-linear resistors without spark gap
Zinc
-ZincOxide
Oxidenon-linear
non-linearresistor
resistor….roves
….rovesmore
morenon-
non
linear current/voltage c/cssthan
than silicon
silicon carbide;
carbide; more
more
.stable when subject to frequent surges
 2- Cables
installation

Cables are usually buried approximately 750 mm deep for L.V. and slightly deeper, say 1000
mm for H.V. Covering cables a PVC ribbon close to the surface when the cable trench is
backfilled. This ribbon can be distinctly coloured, market “DANGER ELECTRICITY
. ”CABLES
Derating factors: Each cable has its own Ampacity . But this value of Ampacity
do not consider some factors like ground temperature, burial depth, trefoil or
flat formation of single core cables , etc.
So, the cable Ampacity is modified according to specified ratio.
For example, the following table shows how the single core cables formation
affects the Ampacity value:
 Medium Voltage Cables test
A . Visual and mechanical inspection :
1- Inspect exposed sections of cables for physical damage and evidences of
overheating and corona.
2- Inspect terminations and splices for evidences of overheating and corona.
3- Inspect all bolted electrical connections for high resistance using one of the
following methods:
i - Use of low – resistance ohmmeter.
ii - Verify tightness of accessible bolted electrical connections by calibrated torque-
wrench method in accordance with manufacturer's published data.
iii- Perform thermo graphic survey .
4- Inspect comparison – applied connections for correct cable match and
identification.
5- Inspect for shield grounding , cable support , and termination.
6- Verify that visible cable bends meet or exceed ICEA and/or manufacturer's
minimum allowable bending radius.
7- Inspect fireproofing in common cable areas , if specified.
8- If cables are terminated through window –type current transformers, make an
inspection to verify that neutral and ground conductors are correctly placed and
that shields are correctly terminated for operation of protective devices.
 Medium Voltage Cables test
B .Electrical Tests:
1- Perform a shield – continuity test on each power cable by ohmmeter method.
2- Perform an insulation – resistance test utilizing a megohmmter with a
voltage output of at least 2500 volts. Individually test each conductor with all
other conductors and shields grounded . Test duration shall be one minute.
3- Perform resistance measurements through all bolted connections with a low
resistance ohmmeter, if applicable .
4- Perform a dc high – potential test on all cables . adhere to all precautions and
limits as specified in the applicable NEMA/ICEA standard for specific cable.
Perform tests in accordance with ANSI/IEEE standard [Link] procedure shall
be as follows , and the results for each cable test shall be recorded as specified
herein .test voltages shall not exceed 60 percent of cable manufacturer's
factory test value or Maximum test voltage in the table.
Note:
1- Insure that the input voltage to the test is regulated .
2- Current – sensing circuits in test equipment shall measure only the leakage
current associated with the cable under test and shall not include internal
leakage of equipment .
Medium Voltage Cables test
3- Record wet – and dry-bulb temperatures or relative humidity and temperature.
4- Test each section of cable individually.
5- Individually test each conductor with all other conductors grounded. ground all
shields.
6- Terminations shall be adequately corona – suppressed by guard ring , field
reduction sphere , or other suitable methods as necessary.
7- Insure that the maximum test voltage does not exceed the limits for terminators
specified in NSI/IEEE Standards 48 or manufacturer's specifications.
8- Apply a dc high – potential test in at least five equal increments until maximum
test voltage is reached . no increment shall exceed the the voltage rating of the
cable .Record dc leakage current at each step after a constant stabilization time
consistent with system charging current.
9- Raise the conductor to the specified maximum test voltage and hold for five
minutes, Record readings of leakage current at 30 seconds and one minute
intervals thereafter.
10- Reduce the conductor test potential to zero and measure residual voltage at
discrete intervals.
11- Apply grounds for a time period adequate to drain all insulation stored charge.
Medium Voltage Cables test
C .Test Values:
1- Compare bolted connection resistances to values of similar connections.
2- Bolt – torque levels shall be in accordance with manufacturer specification.
3- Microhm or millivolt drop values shall not exceed the high levels of the
normal ranges as indicated in the manufacturer's published data .if
manufacturer's data is not available , investigate any values which deviate
from similar connections by more than 25 percent of the lowest value.
4- Shielding must exhibit continuity . investigate resistance values in excess of
ten ohms per 1000 feet of cable.
5- Graphic plots may be made of leakage current versus step voltage at each
increment and leakage current versus time at final test voltages.
6- The step voltage slope should be reasonably linear.
7- Capacitive and absorption current should decrease continually until steady
state leakage is approached.
8- Compare test results to previously obtained results.
INSULATION-RESISTANCE TEST
VOLTAGES FOR ELECTRICAL
APPARATUS
Recommended
Minimum Insulation Minimum Maximum Voltage
Resistance in Test Voltage ,DC Rating of Equipment
Megohms
25 volts 500 volts 250
100 volts 1,000 volts 600
1,000 volts 2,500 volts 5,000
2,000 volts 2,500 volts 8,000
5,000 volts 2,500 volts 15,000
20,000 volts 5,000 volts 25,000
100,000 volts 15,000 volts 35,000
100,000 volts 15,000 volts 46,000
100,000 volts 15,000 volts 69,000
Maximum Maintenance Test Voltages (KV,dc)
Test Voltage Insulation Rated Cable Insulation
(Kv,dc) Level Voltage type
60 % 100 KV 25
75 % 133 KV 25
EPR
64 % 100 KV 28
75 % 100 KV 35
19 % 100 KV 5
19 % 133 KV 5
26 % 100 KV 8
26 % 133 KV 8
41 % 100 KV 15 Polyethylene
49 % 133 KV 15
60 % 100 KV 25
75 % 133 KV 25
75 % 100 KV 35
Maximum Maintenance Test Voltages (KV,dc)
Test Voltage Insulation Rated Cable
Insulation Type
Kv,DC Level Voltage
19 % 100 KV 5 Elastomeric
19 % 133 KV 5
41 % 100 KV 15 Butyl and Oil
49 % 133 KV 15 Base
60 % 100 KV 25
19 % 100 KV 5 Elastomeric
19 % 133 KV 5
26 % 100 KV 8
26 % 133 KV 8 EPR
41 % 100 KV 15
49 % 133 KV 15
 2-2 Substations
A substation is the part of an electricity transmission and distribution system
where voltage is transformed from low to high and vice versa using
transformers. The range of voltages in a power system varies from 110 V up
to 765 kV. Transformation may take place in several stages and at several
substations in sequence, starting at the generatig plant substation where the
voltage is increased for transmission purposes and is then progressively
reduced to the voltage required for household use.
 A typical substation will contain line termination structures, high-voltage switchgear,
one or more power transformers, low voltage switchgear, surge protection, controls,
and metering.

The following is a quick overview on the main components in any

substation.
 2-2-1 Switchgear
The term switchgear, commonly used in association with the electric power
system, or grid, refers to the combination of electrical disconnects and/or
circuit breakers meant to isolate equipment in or near an electrical substation.
Typically switchgear is located on both the high voltage, and the low voltage side of
large power transformers.

Medium voltage switchgear

 Construction

Circuit breaker compartment 1

Bus bar compartment 2
Cable compartment 3
Low voltage compartment 4
Arc channel 5
Current transformers 6
Voltage transformers 7
Earthing switch 8
 The unit consists, as shown above, of three power compartments bus bars, cable,
circuit breaker and low voltage compartment for instruments, auxiliary circuit
wiring. these compartments are more clear in the following short notes:

Main bus bars compartment: The bus bar

compartment houses the main bus bar
system, which is connected to the circuit
breaker fixed insulating contacts.

Cable compartment: Current transformers,

earthing switch and surge arresters are installed
in the cable compartment. Space is provided
.for multiple cable connections
Low voltage compartment: All secondary
equipment required for protection and control
.functions is located in this compartment

Circuit-breaker compartment: The circuit-

breaker compartment A fitted with the
necessary guide rails accommodates the
withdraw ability, this compartment can be
moved between the service position and the
test/disconnected position.
M.V & L.V Switchgear
 Sf6 Circuit Breaker
Sf6 circuit breaker with spring operated mechanism is excellently
suitable for switching of short-circuit currents, overhead lines
and cables under load and no load, transformers and generators,
motors, ripple control systems and capacitors - even in parallel.
 Vacuum Circuit Breakers
Universal Applications:
- Medium voltage motor starting applications
- Capacitor switching
- Mining applications where high reliability and resistance to
dust and humidity are critical.
 Air Disconnector Switch
They are used in secondary distribution substations for
supplying
lines, power transformers and ring networks.
 Primary Bus System
All primary bus is 100%
copper
with full round edges,
and is
available in 1200 A, 2000
A,
3000 A and 4000 A
ratings.
The bus is silver-plated at
joints and bolted
together with
a minimum of two
halfinch
porcelain supports are
standard at 3000 A or
 Cable Compartments
Well-designed cable compartments for both Safe Gear
and
Advance provide an efficient layout with ample room for
stress
cones and a choice of cable terminations and lug types.
 Control Panel
The control panel is ideally fulfill the requirements of
automated processes for more transparency and efficiency.
It comprises very modern and competitive range of
contactors, soft starters, starters, proximity sensors, limit
switches, manual motor starters, a wide range of electronic
relays and overload relays, together with an extended
program of pilot devices and Plus.
 Current Transformer

1. medium voltage terminals

2. primary winding
3. magnetic circuit
4. secondary winding
5. epoxy body
6. secondary outlets
7. base plate
8. cover of secondary
terminals, used for outlet
sealing
9. nameplate
 Voltage Transformer
1. medium voltage terminals
2. primary coil
3. magnetic circuit
4. secondary winding
5. epoxy body
6. secondary outlets
7. base plate
8. cover of secondary
terminals, used for outlet
sealing
9. nameplate
Low voltage Air Circuit-Breakers

1-Trademark and size of circuit breaker

2-release
3-Pushbutton for manual opening
4-Pushbutton for manual closing
5-Lever to manually charge closing springs
6-Electrical rating plate
7-Mechanical device to signal circuit-breaker
open “O” and closed “I”
8- Signal for springs charged or discharged
9- Mechanical signaling of over current
releases
tripped
10- Key lock in open position
11- Key lock and padlock in racked in/ racked-
out position .
12- Racking-in/out device .
13- Terminal box .
14- Sliding contacts .
15- Circuit-breaker position indicator.
 Molded Case Circuit
Breakers

 Its entire range covers the current ratings

between 15 A to 2500 A and interrupting
ratings, at 480 V AC, which can reach150kA.

 Universal Applications:

– circuit breakers for power distribution (fitted

with thermo magnetic or electronic trip units ).
– circuit breakers with adjustable magnetic only
trip units for motor protection.
– molded case switches for use as isolators or
switching devices for lines, bus bars or parts of
a plant .
 Miniature Circuit Breaker
This range of miniature circuit is suitable for all
applications in residential, commercial and industrial
installations.
2-2-2 Power Transformers :
It located in substations to step up or step down the
voltage. Typically it is used in power plants to step
the voltage up to be transmitted. while it is used in
substations to step down the voltage to be
distributed.
 2-2-3 Current & voltage Transformers (CT’s
& VT’s):

The CT’s and VT’s are used to sense the current and
voltage respectively. They are the main measuring
instruments in any substation.

current transformers voltage transformers

 2-2-4 Surge Arresters:

Overvoltages are one of the most undesired phenomena for any

power system.
The overvoltages are due to some reasons like lightning or switching.
Surge Arrestors are used to protect the system from such severe
dangers.

Polymer-housed arresters Porcelain-housed arresters Polymer arrester

 3- Distribution of Electricity

With the ever-increasing need to dispatch electric energy to growing loads, existing
distribution systems grow and expand. As well, new networks are constructed in the
new developing residential, industrial and agricultural areas. Thus, large investments
are spent to construct a distribution system, such that in typical power systems, 40% of
the investments are spent in the distribution system which is double the investment in
the transmission system (20%) and as much as the investment in the generation plants
(40%). In addition, the consumers are now progressively interested in power quality
and an uninterrupted supply, i.e. a reliable distribution system is required. Therefore,
system engineers in the Power Utilities progressively give every care to the distribution
system operation and maintenance.

The Main Parts of distribution system are Distribution

Transformers and Outdoor Distribution Transformers
(Kiosks)
3-1 Distribution Transformers
 Specification Of Distribution
Transformers

In selecting and committing a

new
transformer, the following
Parameters must be
specified.
1-Rating
2-Frequency
3-Tapping on both sides of the
transformer
Main Parts of Distribution Transformers

1- Iron Core
2- Windings
Low Voltage Windings
High Voltage Windings
3- Tank
4- Oil Expansion
Conservator
5- Terminals
6- Tap Changer
7- Cooling Oil
 Classification of Distribution Transformers
According To The Method of Insulating And Cooling .

Fluid immersed transformer:

Oil has a dual function; the first is to insulate between turns
with each other as well between the turns and the core.
While the second function is cooling.

Dry type transformer :

Cooling takes place by means of air circulation through
the turns under normal air pressure .
3-2 Outdoor Distribution
Transformers (Kiosks)
 General Description Of Outdoor
Distribution Transformers (Kiosks)

1-Roof mounted lifting

eyes
2-Double roof with neutral
ventilation
3-Ventilation louvers
4-MV compartment door
5-Heavy‑duty door hinges
6-Earth fault indicator
7-Transformer
compartment door
8-LV compartment door
9-Opening handle
10-Base for Kiosk
Dimensions of The Distribution
Transformers (Kiosks)
Weight without )L ( ) W( ) H( Kiosk
Transformer Length Width Height Description
Rating up to 500 KVA
ton 2.4 = 3200mm 1680 mm mm 2050
Voltage 12 KV
Rating up to 1000 KVA
= 3 ton 4110mm 2000 mm mm 2370
Voltage 12 KV

So, the location of the kiosk should be selected such that the
transportation & installation and maintenance are easily done.
 Transformer Compartment
The transformer is connected to the LV distribution board via
copper bus bars or cables based on the transformer capacity,
and to the MV equipment via XLPE screened cables, each of
the XLPE cables is equipped with two cable end box for three
single phase connection .
 Medium Voltage
Compartment
It comprises a Ring Main Unit (RMU) including up to
three load break switches and one automatic fused load
break switch for transformer . All circuit arrangement may
. be provided with earth fault indicators
 Low Voltage Compartment
The main incoming apparatus is
usually molded case automatic air
circuit breaker , complete with
overload and short circuit
protection with rating up to 3200A.
The incoming unit is equipped with
voltmeter and selector switch, 3
ammeters, 3 signal lamps and
space for optional K.W.H meter.

The outgoing feeders is provided

with the following components:
 Molded Case Circuit Breakers

As an example for the capacity

of
the 500 KVA kiosk, the
number of the outgoing feeders
With molded case circuit
breakers (MCCB) may be one of
the following :
-Nine frame size 160A,200A or
250A MCCB.
-Six frame size 400A MCCB .
-Four frame size 630A MCCB .
 Fused Load Break Switches

For the same example of

the 500KVA kiosk, the
number
of the outgoing feeders
using fused load break
switches (SF) may be
one of the following
-Nine with (SF) 160A up to
250A.
- Six (SF) up to 400A .
- Four (SF) up to 630A .
 HRC fuses

For the same example of

the 500KVA kiosk,
the number of the
outgoing feeders with
high rupturing capacity
fuses may be one of the
Following :
‑ Four H.R.C. fuses up to
630A .
‑ Six H.R.C. fuses up to
250A .
 Power Factor Correction

AC power flow has the three components: real power (P), measured in watts
(W); apparent power (S), measured in volt-amperes (VA); and reactive power
(Q), measured in reactive volt-amperes (VAR).

The power factor of an AC electric power system is defined as the ratio of the
real power to the apparent power

By definition, the power factor is a dimensionless number between 0 and 1.

When power factor is equal to 0, the energy flow is entirely reactive, and
stored energy in the load returns to the source on each cycle. When the power
factor is 1, all the energy supplied by the source is consumed by the load.
 CONTENTS:-

1. POWER FACTOR IMPROVEMENT

2. WHY IMPROVE THE POWER FACTOR
3. HOW TO IMPROVE THE POWER FACTOR
4. CALCULATION THE REACTIVE POWER TO BE
INSTALLED
5. WHERE TO INSTALL CORRECTION CAPACITORS ION
6. EXAMPLE FOR 6th STEPS PFCP
7. EXAMPLE FOR 12th STEPS PFCP
8. PF CONTROLLER FOR 6th STEPS
9. PF CONTROLLER FOR 12th STEPS
10. STANDARD DIAGRAM FOR PF CONTROLLER FOR 6th &
12th STEPS
11. INSTALLATION RECOMMENDATIONS
12. FACTORY TEST
13. S.L.D FOR ACPA Co.
1- POWER FACTOR IMPROVEMENT

The Nature of Reactive Energy 1.1

Plant And Appliances Required Reactive Current 1.2
The Power Factor 1.3
Practical Values of Power Factor 1.4
 2- WHY IMPROVE THE POWER FACTOR

Reduction in the Cost Electricity 2.1

Technical and Economical Optimization 2.2
Reduction of Cable Size 2.2.1
Reduction of losses(P, Kw) in cables 2.2.2
Reduction of Voltage Drop 2.2.3
Increase in Available Power 2.2.4
3- HOW TO IMPROVE THE PF.

COMPENSATION AT L.V. IS PROVIDED BY

FIXED VALUES CAPACITOR -1
AUTOMATIC CAPACITOR BANKS -2
 AUTOMATIC COMPENSATION PF.

 A bank of capacitors is divided into a number

of section.
 Each of which is controlled by a contactor.
 A control relay monitors the power factor of

the controlled circuit(s) and is arranged to close

and open appropriate contactors to maintain
a reasonably constant system power factor
(within the tolerance imposed by the size of
each step of compensation).
4- CALCULATION THE REACTIVE POWER TO
BE INSTALLED

Øn Pa

Sn Qn
Øo
Qo
So
Qc
CALCULATION TABLE FOR Kvar TO
BE INSTALLED
5- WHERE TO INSTALL CORRECTION
CAPACITORS

GLOBAL COMPENSATION 4.1

COMENSATION BY SECTOR 4.2
INDIVIDUAL COMPENSATION 4.3
5.1 GLOBAL COMPENSATION

-:Principles
Capacitors bank is Connected to the
busbars
of the main dist. Panel, and remains in
service
.during the period of the normal load
-:Advantages
Reduce the Tariff Penalties 
Reduce the Apparent Power KVA 
Relieves the supply transformer, which is then 
. able to accept more load if necessary

-:Comments

Significant reactive currents no longer

exist in the installation
 5.2 COMPENSATION BY SECTOR

-:Principles
Capacitors banks are Connected to busbars
of each local dist. board, and remains
in service during the period of the normal
.load

-:Advantages
Reduce the Tariff Penalties 

Reduce the Apparent Power KVA 

Losses in the same cables will be 
.reduced
relieves the supply transformer, which is then 
.able to accept more load if necessary
-:Comments
Reactive current still flows in all cables 

downstream of the local dist. Boards

 5.3 INDIVIDUAL COMPENSATION

-:Principles
Capacitors Are Connected Directly to
.The Terminals of Inductive Plant

-:Advantages
Reduce the Tariff Penalties 

Reduce the Apparent Power KVA 

Reduce the Size of All Cables 

-:Comments
Significant reactive currents no longer 

exist in the installation

6- EXAMPLE FOR 6th STEPS PFCP
7- EXAMPLE FOR 12th STEPS PFCP
8- PF CONTROLLER FOR 6th STEP
9- PF CONTROLLER FOR 12th STEP
10- STANDARD DIAGRAM FOR PF CONTROLLER
FOR 6th & 12th STEPS
11- INSTALLATION RECOMMENDATIONS
12- FACTORY TEST
13- S.L.D FOR ACPA Co.
 The capacitors are mainly used to improve the power
factor, below some types of capacitor banks.

Enclosed Switched Bank Pole-mounted Capacitor 400 Mvar shunt bank for
Bank reactive compensation
 Earthing Systems
In electricity supply systems, an earthing system defines the
electrical potential of the conductors relative to that of the Earth's
conductive surface. The choice of earthing system has implications for the
safety and electromagnetic compatibility of the power supply.
A protective earth (PE) connection ensures that all exposed conductive
surfaces are at the same electrical potential as the surface of the Earth, to
avoid the risk of electrical shock if a person touches a device in which an
insulation fault has occurred. It also ensures that in the cause of an
insulation fault, a high fault current flows, which will trigger an overcurrent
protection device (fuse, MCB) that disconnects the power supply.
A functional earth connection serves a purpose other than providing protection
against electrical shock. In contrast to a protective earth connection, a
functional earth connection may carry a current during the normal
operation of a device. Functional earth connections may be required by
devices such as surge suppression and electromagnetic-compatibility filters,
some types of antennas and various measurement instruments. Generally
the protective earth is also used as a functional earth though this requires
care in some situations.
 Electrical System Earthing

Electrical systems shall be connected to earth

in a manner that will limit the voltage imposed
by lightning, line surges, or unintentional
contact with higher-voltage lines and that will
stabilize the voltage to earth during normal
operation.
 The importance of the earthing
system choice

a- Supply Continuity and System selectivity.

b- Over a voltage Dangers.
c- Arcing.
d- Protection earthing possibility: that include.
-The Equipment grounding
-Lighting protection grounding
-Electrostatic protection grounding
 Types of earthing

There are five basic types of earthing

arrangements embodied in the systems
identified by TN-C, TN-S, TN-C-S, TT and IT
and these are shown in figures .
Electrical System Earthing
I-In the TN-C system
II- In the TN‑S system
III- In the TN-C-S system
IV- In the TT system
V- In the IT systems