Introduction to Syntax and
Context-Free Grammars
[Link]
Announcements
• Talks
– Information Extraction, Data Mining and Joint
Inference, Prof. Andrew McCallum, Univ. of
Massachusetts, 11AM Wed. Oct. 1st, Davis
Auditorium, Schapiro
– Integrity of Elections, Dr. Peter G. Neumann, SRI
International, 11 AM Mon. Oct. 6th, Davis
Auditorium, Schapiro
What is Syntax?
• Study of structure of language
• Refers to the way words are arranged
together, and the relationship between
them.
• Roughly, goal is to relate surface form (what
we perceive when someone says
something) to semantics (what that
utterance means)
What is Syntax Not?
• Phonology: study of sound systems and
how sounds combine
• Morphology: study of how words are
formed from smaller parts (morphemes)
• Semantics: study of meaning of language
What is Syntax? (2)
• Study of structure of language
• Specifically, goal is to relate an interface to
morphological component to an interface
to a semantic component
• Note: interface to morphological
component may look like written text
• Representational device is tree structure
Simplified View of Linguistics
Phonology /waddyasai/
Morphology /waddyasai/ what did you say
say
Syntax what did you say subj obj
you what
say
Semantics subj obj
P[ x. say(you, x) ]
you what
The Big Picture Empirical Matter
Formalisms ?
•Data structures
?
•Formalisms (e.g., Maud expects there
to be a riot
CFG) *Teri promised
•Algorithms there to be a riot
Maud expects the
•Distributional Models shit to hit the fan
*Teri promised the
shit to hit the fan
?
?
Linguistic Theory
What About Chomsky?
• At birth of formal language theory (comp sci) and formal
linguistics
• Major contribution: syntax is cognitive reality
• Humans able to learn languages quickly, but not all languages
universal grammar is biological
• Goal of syntactic study: find universal principles and language-
specific parameters
• Specific Chomskyan theories change regularly
• General ideas adopted by almost all contemporary syntactic
theories (“principles-and-parameters-type theories”)
Types of Linguistic Theories
• Prescriptive: “prescriptive linguistics” is an oxymoron
– Prescriptive grammar: how people ought to talk
• Descriptive: provide account of syntax of a language
– Descriptive grammar: how people do talk
– often appropriate for NLP engineering work
• Explanatory: provide principles-and-parameters style
account of syntax of (preferably) several languages
Empirical Matter
The Big Picture or
Formalisms
•Data structures
•Formalisms
? Maud expects
there to be a
riot
*Teri
promised there
•Algorithms to be a riot
Maud expects
•Distributional Models the shit to hit
the fan
*Teri
promised the
shit to hit the
?
?
Linguistic Theory
Syntax: Why should we care?
• Grammar checkers
• Question answering
• Information extraction
• Machine translation
key ideas of syntax
• Constituency (we’ll spend most of our time on this)
• Subcategorization
• Grammatical relations
• Movement/long-distance dependency
Structure in Strings
• Some words: the a small nice big very boy girl sees likes
• Some good sentences:
– the boy likes a girl
– the small girl likes the big girl
– a very small nice boy sees a very nice boy
• Some bad sentences:
– *the boy the girl
– *small boy likes nice girl
• Can we find subsequences of words (constituents) which in
some way behave alike?
Structure in Strings
Proposal 1
• Some words: the a small nice big very boy girl sees likes
• Some good sentences:
– (the) boy (likes a girl)
– (the small) girl (likes the big girl)
– (a very small nice) boy (sees a very nice boy)
• Some bad sentences:
– *(the) boy (the girl)
– *(small) boy (likes the nice girl)
Structure in Strings
Proposal 2
• Some words: the a small nice big very boy girl sees likes
• Some good sentences:
– (the boy) likes (a girl)
– (the small girl) likes (the big girl)
– (a very small nice boy) sees (a very nice boy)
• Some bad sentences:
– *(the boy) (the girl)
– *(small boy) likes (the nice girl)
• This is better proposal: fewer types of constituents
(blue and red are of same type)
More Structure in Strings
Proposal 2 -- ctd
• Some words: the a small nice big very boy girl sees likes
• Some good sentences:
– ((the) boy) likes ((a) girl)
– ((the) (small) girl) likes ((the) (big) girl)
– ((a) ((very) small) (nice) boy) sees ((a) ((very) nice) girl)
• Some bad sentences:
– *((the) boy) ((the) girl)
– *((small) boy) likes ((the) (nice) girl)
From Substrings to Trees
• (((the) boy) likes ((a) girl))
likes
boy girl
the a
Node Labels?
• ( ((the) boy) likes ((a) girl) )
• Choose constituents so each one has one non-bracketed word:
the head
• Group words by distribution of constituents they head (part-of-
speech, POS):
– Noun (N), verb (V), adjective (Adj), adverb (Adv), determiner (Det)
• Category of constituent: XP, where X is POS
– NP, S, AdjP, AdvP, DetP
Node Labels
• (((the/Det) boy/N) likes/V ((a/Det) girl/N))
NP likes NP
DetP boy DetP girl
the a
Types of Nodes
• (((the/Det) boy/N) likes/V ((a/Det) girl/N))
S
nonterminal
symbols Phrase-structure
= constituents NP likes NP tree
DetP boy DetP girl
the a
terminal symbols = words
Determining Part-of-Speech
A blue seat/a child seat: noun or adjective?
– Syntax:
• a blue seat a child seat
• a very blue seat *a very child seat
• this seat is blue *this seat is child
– Morphology:
• bluer *childer
– blue and child are not the same POS
– blue is Adj, child is Noun
Determining
Part-of-Speech (2)
– preposition or particle?
• A he threw out the garbage
• B he threw the garbage out the door
• A he threw the garbage out
• B *he threw the garbage the door out
• The two out are not same POS; A is particle, B is
Preposition
Constituency (Review)
• E.g., Noun phrases (NPs)
• A red dog on a blue tree
• A blue dog on a red tree
• Some big dogs and some little dogs
• A dog
•I
• Big dogs, little dogs, red dogs, blue dogs, yellow
dogs, green dogs, black dogs, and white dogs
• How do we know these form a
constituent?
Constituency (II)
• They can all appear before a verb:
– Some big dogs and some little dogs are going
around in cars…
– Big dogs, little dogs, red dogs, blue dogs, yellow
dogs, green dogs, black dogs, and white dogs are all
at a dog party!
– I do not
• But individual words can’t always appear before verbs:
– *little are going…
– *blue are…
– *and are
• Must be able to state generalizations like:
– Noun phrases occur before verbs
Constituency (III)
• Preposing and postposing:
– Under a tree is a yellow dog.
– A yellow dog is under a tree.
• But not:
– *Under, is a yellow dog a tree.
– *Under a is a yellow dog tree.
• Prepositional phrases notable for ambiguity in attachment
Phrase Structure and Dependency
Structure
S
likes/V
NP likes NP
boy/N girl/N
DetP boy DetP girl the/Det a/Det
the a All nodes are labeled
with words!
Only leaf nodes labeled with words!
Phrase Structure and Dependency
Structure (ctd)
S likes/V
NP NP
boy/N girl/N
likes
boy the/Det a/Det
DetP DetP girl
the a
Representationally equivalent if each nonterminal
node has one lexical daughter (its head)
Types of Dependency
Adj(unct)
likes/V
Subj Obj
sometimes/Adv boy/N girl/N
Fw
Adj Fw
the/Det small/Adj a/Det
Adj
very/Adv
Grammatical Relations
• Types of relations between words
– Arguments: subject, object, indirect object,
prepositional object
– Adjuncts: temporal, locative, causal, manner, …
– Function Words
Subcategorization
• List of arguments of a word (typically, a
verb), with features about realization (POS,
perhaps case, verb form etc)
• In canonical order Subject-Object-IndObj
• Example:
– like: N-N, N-V(to-inf)
– see: N, N-N, N-N-V(inf)
• Note: J&M talk about subcategorization
only within VP
What About the VP?
S
S
NP VP
NP likes NP
DetPboy DetPgirl DetP boy
likes NP
the a
the DetP girl
a
What About the VP?
• Existence of VP is a linguistic (i.e., empirical) claim, not a
methodological claim
• Semantic evidence???
• Syntactic evidence
– VP-fronting (and quickly clean the carpet he did! )
– VP-ellipsis (He cleaned the carpets quickly, and so did she )
– Can have adjuncts before and after VP, but not in VP (He often eats
beans, *he eats often beans )
• Note: VP cannot be represented in a dependency
representation
Context-Free Grammars
• Defined in formal language theory (comp
sci)
• Terminals, nonterminals, start symbol, rules
• String-rewriting system
• Start with start symbol, rewrite using rules,
done when only terminals left
• NOT A LINGUISTIC THEORY, just a formal
device
CFG: Example
• Many possible CFGs for English, here is an example
(fragment):
– S NP VP
– VP V NP
– NP DetP N | AdjP NP
– AdjP Adj | Adv AdjP
– N boy | girl
– V sees | likes
– Adj big | small
– Adv very
– DetP a | the
the very small boy likes a girl
Derivations in a CFG
S
S NP VP S
VP V NP
NP DetP N | AdjP NP
AdjP Adj | Adv AdjP
N boy | girl
V sees | likes
Adj big | small
Adv very
DetP a | the
Derivations in a CFG
NP VP
S NP VP S
VP V NP
NP DetP N | AdjP NP
AdjP Adj | Adv AdjP
NP VP
N boy | girl
V sees | likes
Adj big | small
Adv very
DetP a | the
Derivations in a CFG
DetP N VP
S NP VP S
VP V NP
NP DetP N | AdjP NP
AdjP Adj | Adv AdjP
NP VP
N boy | girl
V sees | likes DetP N
Adj big | small
Adv very
DetP a | the
Derivations in a CFG
the boy VP
S NP VP S
VP V NP
NP DetP N | AdjP NP
AdjP Adj | Adv AdjP
NP VP
N boy | girl
V sees | likes DetP N
Adj big | small
Adv very the boy
DetP a | the
Derivations in a CFG
the boy likes NP
S NP VP S
VP V NP
NP DetP N | AdjP NP
AdjP Adj | Adv AdjP
NP VP
N boy | girl
DetP N V
V sees | likes NP
Adj big | small
Adv very the boy likes
DetP a | the
Derivations in a CFG
the boy likes a girl
S NP VP S
VP V NP
NP DetP N | AdjP NP
AdjP Adj | Adv AdjP
NP VP
N boy | girl
DetP N V
V sees | likes NP
Adj big | small
Adv very the boy likes DetP N
DetP a | the
a girl
Derivations in a CFG;
Order of Derivation Irrelevant
NP likes DetP girl
S NP VP S
VP V NP
NP DetP N | AdjP NP
AdjP Adj | Adv AdjP
NP VP
N boy | girl
V sees | likes V NP
Adj big | small
Adv very likes DetP N
DetP a | the
girl
Derivations of CFGs
• String rewriting system: we derive a string
(=derived structure)
• But derivation history represented by phrase-
structure tree (=derivation structure)!
S
NP VP
the boy likes a girl DetP N V NP
the boy likes DetP N
a girl
Formal Definition of a CFG
G = (V,T,P,S)
• V: finite set of nonterminal symbols
• T: finite set of terminal symbols, V and T are disjoint
• P: finite set of productions of the form
A , A V and (T V)*
• S V: start symbol
Context?
• The notion of context in CFGs has nothing to do with the
ordinary meaning of the word context in language
• All it really means is that the non-terminal on the left-hand
side of a rule is out there all by itself (free of context)
A -> B C
Means that I can rewrite an A as a B followed by a C
regardless of the context in which A is found
Key Constituents (English)
• Sentences
• Noun phrases
• Verb phrases
• Prepositional phrases
Sentence-Types
• Declaratives: I do not.
S -> NP VP
• Imperatives: Go around again!
S -> VP
• Yes-No Questions: Do you like my hat?
S -> Aux NP VP
• WH Questions: What are they going to do?
S -> WH Aux NP VP
NPs
• NP -> Pronoun
– I came, you saw it, they conquered
• NP -> Proper-Noun
– New Jersey is west of New York City
– Lee Bollinger is the president of Columbia
• NP -> Det Noun
– The president
• NP -> Nominal
• Nominal -> Noun Noun
– A morning flight to Denver
PPs
• PP -> Preposition NP
– Over the house
– Under the house
– To the tree
– At play
– At a party on a boat at night
Recursion
• We’ll have to deal with rules such as the
following where the non-terminal on the left
also appears somewhere on the right
(directly)
NP -> NP PP [[The flight] [to Boston]]
VP -> VP PP [[departed Miami] [at noon]]
(indirectly)
NP -> NP Srel
Srel -> NP VP [ [the dog] [[the cat] likes] ]
Recursion
• Of course, this is what makes syntax
interesting
The dog bites
The dog the mouse bit bites
The dog the mouse the cat ate bit bites
Recursion
[[Flights] [from Denver]]
[[[Flights] [from Denver]] [to Miami]]
[[[[Flights] [from Denver]] [to Miami]] [in February]]
[[[[[Flights] [from Denver]] [to Miami]] [in February]] [on a
Friday]]
Etc.
NP -> NP PP
Implications of Recursion
and Context-Freeness
• VP -> V NP
• (I) hate
flights from Denver
flights from Denver to Miami
flights from Denver to Miami in February
flights from Denver to Miami in February on a Friday
flights from Denver to Miami in February on a Friday under $300
flights from Denver to Miami in February on a Friday under $300 with
lunch
• This is why context-free grammars are appealing! If you have a rule like
VP -> V NP
– It only cares that the thing after the verb is an NP
It doesn’t have to know about the internal affairs of that NP
Grammar Equivalence
• Can have different grammars that generate same set of
strings (weak equivalence)
– Grammar 1: NP DetP N and DetP a | the
– Grammar 2: NP a N | NP the N
• Can have different grammars that have same set of
derivation trees (strong equivalence)
– With CFGs, possible only with useless rules
– Grammar 2: NP a N | NP the N
– Grammar 3: NP a N | NP the N, DetP many
• Strong equivalence implies weak equivalence
Normal Forms &c
• There are weakly equivalent normal forms
(Chomsky Normal Form, Greibach Normal
Form)
• There are ways to eliminate useless
productions and so on
Chomsky Normal Form
A CFG is in Chomsky Normal Form (CNF) if all productions are of
one of two forms:
• A BC with A, B, C nonterminals
• A a, with A a nonterminal and a a terminal
Every CFG has a weakly equivalent CFG in CNF
“Generative Grammar”
• Formal languages: formal device to generate
a set of strings (such as a CFG)
• Linguistics (Chomskyan linguistics in
particular): approach in which a linguistic
theory enumerates all possible
strings/structures in a language
(=competence)
• Chomskyan theories do not really use formal
devices – they use CFG + informally defined
transformations
Nobody Uses Simple CFGs (Except
Intro NLP Courses)
• All major syntactic theories (Chomsky, LFG, HPSG, TAG-based
theories) represent both phrase structure and dependency, in
one way or another
• All successful parsers currently use statistics about phrase
structure and about dependency
• Derive dependency through “head percolation”: for each rule,
say which daughter is head
Massive Ambiguity of Syntax
• For a standard sentence, and a grammar with
wide coverage, there are 1000s of derivations!
• Example:
– The large portrait painter told the delegation that
he sent money orders in a letter on Wednesday
Penn Treebank (PTB)
• Syntactically annotated corpus of newspaper texts (phrase
structure)
• The newspaper texts are naturally occurring data, but the
PTB is not!
• PTB annotation represents a particular linguistic theory
(but a fairly “vanilla” one)
• Particularities
– Very indirect representation of grammatical relations (need for
head percolation tables)
– Completely flat structure in NP (brown bag lunch, pink-and-yellow
child seat )
– Has flat Ss, flat VPs
Example from PTB
( (S (NP-SBJ It)
(VP 's
(NP-PRD (NP (NP the latest investment craze)
(VP sweeping
(NP Wall Street)))
:
(NP (NP a rash)
(PP of
(NP (NP new closed-end country funds)
,
(NP (NP those
(ADJP publicly traded)
portfolios)
(SBAR (WHNP-37 that)
(S (NP-SBJ *T*-37)
(VP invest
(PP-CLR in
(NP (NP stocks)
(PP of
(NP a single foreign country)))))))))))
Types of syntactic constructions
• Is this the same construction?
– An elf decided to clean the kitchen
– An elf seemed to clean the kitchen
An elf cleaned the kitchen
• Is this the same construction?
– An elf decided to be in the kitchen
– An elf seemed to be in the kitchen
An elf was in the kitchen
Types of syntactic constructions (ctd)
• Is this the same construction?
There is an elf in the kitchen
– *There decided to be an elf in the kitchen
– There seemed to be an elf in the kitchen
• Is this the same construction?
It is raining/it rains
– ??It decided to rain/be raining
– It seemed to rain/be raining
Types of syntactic constructions (ctd)
• Is this the same construction?
– An elf decided that he would clean the kitchen
– * An elf seemed that he would clean the
kitchen
An elf cleaned the kitchen
Types of syntactic constructions (ctd)
Conclusion:
• to seem: whatever is embedded surface
subject can appear in upper clause
• to decide: only full nouns that are referential
can appear in upper clause
• Two types of verbs
Types of syntactic constructions:
Analysis
S S
NP VP VP
an elf V S V S
to decide NP VP to seem NP VP
an elf V PP an elf V PP
to be in the to be in the
kitchen kitchen
Types of syntactic constructions:
Analysis
S S
NP VP VP
an elf V S V S
decided NP VP seemed NP VP
PRO V PP an elf V PP
to be in the to be in the
kitchen kitchen
Types of syntactic constructions:
Analysis
S S
NP VP VP
an elf V S V S
decided NP VP seemed NP VP
PRO V PP an elf V PP
to be in the to be in the
kitchen kitchen
Types of syntactic constructions:
Analysis
S S
NP VP NPi VP
an elf V S an elf V S
decided NP VP seemed NP VP
PRO V PP ti PP
V
to be in the to be in the
kitchen kitchen
Types of syntactic constructions:
Analysis
to seem: lower surface subject raises to
upper clause; raising verb
seems (there to be an elf in the kitchen)
there seems (t to be an elf in the kitchen)
it seems (there is an elf in the kitchen)
Types of syntactic constructions:
Analysis (ctd)
• to decide: subject is in upper clause and co-
refers with an empty subject in lower clause;
control verb
an elf decided (an elf to clean the kitchen)
an elf decided (PRO to clean the kitchen)
an elf decided (he cleans/should clean the kitchen)
*it decided (an elf cleans/should clean the kitchen)
Lessons Learned from the
Raising/Control Issue
• Use distribution of data to group phenomena into classes
• Use different underlying structure as basis for explanations
• Allow things to “move” around from underlying structure ->
transformational grammar
• Check whether explanation you give makes predictions
Examples from PTB
(S (NP-SBJ-1 The ropes)
(VP seem
(S (NP-SBJ *-1)
(VP to
(VP make
(NP much sound))))))
(S (NP-SBJ-1 The ancient church vicar)
(VP refuses
(S (NP-SBJ *-1)
(VP to
(VP talk
(PP-CLR about
(NP it)))))
Empirical Matter
The Big Picture
or
Formalisms
•Data structures Maud expects
•Formalisms descriptive there to be a
riot
•Algorithms theory is *Teri
promised there
•Distributional Models to be a riot
about Maud expects
the shit to hit
the fan
*Teri
promised the
shit to hit the
uses predicts
explanatory
theory is about
Linguistic Theory
Content: Relate morphology to semantics
• Surface representation (eg, ps)
• Deep representation (eg, dep)
• Correspondence
Introduction to Syntax and
Context-Free Grammars
[Link]
Owen Rambow
rambow@[Link]
Slides with contributions from Kathy McKeown, Dan Jurafsky and James Martin