Digestive System, digestion

and absorption of food

Part-I: Digestive system and digestion

Human Physiology (BCH201)

Mahboob Hossain
 Learning objective

 Different parts of the digestive systems

and their roles in digestion


The Components of the Digestive System

 Major Subdivisions  Accessory Organs of

of the Digestive the Digestive Tract
Tract  Salivary glands
 Oral  Liver
Cavity,Teeth,Tongue  Gallbladder
 Pharynx  Pancreas
 Esophagus
 Stomach
 Small Intestine
 Large Intestine
Functions of the Digestive System

1. Ingestion
2. Mechanical processing
3. Digestion
4. Secretion
5. Absorption
6. Excretion
 Digestive system and Digestion
The alimentary tract provides the body with a continual supply
of water, electrolytes, and nutrients. To achieve this requires
(1) Movement of food through the alimentary tract
(2) Secretion of digestive juices and digestion of the food
(3) Absorption of water, various electrolytes and digestive
products
(4) Circulation of blood through the gastrointestinal organs to
carry away the absorbed substances and
(5) Control of all these functions by local, nervous, and
hormonal systems
 General Principles of Gastrointestinal Motility
Physiologic Anatomy of the Gastrointestinal Wall
 Smooth muscle fibers in the gastrointestinal tract are

arranged in bundles of as many as 1000 parallel fibers.

In the longitudinal muscle layer, the bundles extend
longitudinally down the intestinal tract.
 Neurotransmitters Secreted by Enteric Neurons
(1) acetylcholine and (2) norepinephrine, (3)
adenosine triphosphate, (4) serotonin, (5) dopamine,
(6) cholecystokinin, (7) substance P, (8) vasoactive
intestinal polypeptide, (9) somatostatin, (10)
leuenkephalin, (11) metenkephalin, and (12)
bombesin.
 Acetylcholine most often excites gastrointestinal
activity.
 Norepinephrine almost always inhibits
gastrointestinal activity.
Basic Mechanisms of Stimulation of the
Alimentary Tract Glands
Effect of Contact of Food with the Epithelium—Function of
Enteric Nervous Stimuli
 The mechanical presence of food in a particular segment of

the gastrointestinal tract usually causes the glands of that

region and often of adjacent regions to secrete effect,
especially the secretion of mucus by mucous cells.
 In addition, local epithelial stimulation also activates the

enteric nervous system of the gut wall. The types of stimuli

that do this are (1) tactile stimulation, (2) chemical irritation,
and (3) distention of the gut wall
Digestive system and digestion
[Link]
Regulation of Glandular Secretion by Hormones
In the stomach and intestine, gastrointestinal hormones are
liberated from the gastrointestinal mucosa in response to the
presence of food in the lumen of the gut. Chemically, the
gastrointestinal hormones are polypeptides or polypeptide
derivatives.
Secretion of Saliva

Salivary Glands; Characteristics of Saliva

 The principal glands of salivation are the parotid,

submandibular, and sublingual glands; in addition, there are

many very small buccal glands.
 Saliva contains two major types of protein secretion:

(1) a serous secretion that contains ptyalin (an α-amylase),

which is an enzyme for digesting starches, and
(2) mucus secretion that contains mucin for lubricating and for
surface protective purposes.
Esophageal Secretion
The esophageal secretions are entirely mucous in character and
principally provide lubrication for swallowing. The main body
of the esophagus is lined with many simple mucous glands.
 Digestive System, digestion
and absorption of food

Part-II:Gastric secretion, phases of digestion

and digestion of food in duodenum and small
intestine

Human Physiology (BCH201)

Mahboob Hossain
 Learning objectives

 Gastric secretion and HCl formation

 Different phases of digestion

 Digestion of food in duodenum and small

intestine
GASTRIC SECRETION
Characteristics of the Gastric Secretions
A typical stomach oxyntic gland is composed of three types of cells: (1)
mucous neck cells, which secrete mainly mucus; (2) peptic (or chief)
cells, which secrete which secrete large quantities of pepsinogen; and
(3) parietal (or oxyntic) cells, which secrete hydrochloric acid and
intrinsic factor. Secretion of hydrochloric acid by the parietal cells
involves special mechanisms, as follows.
Basic Mechanism of Hydrochloric Acid Secretion
When stimulated, the parietal cells secrete an acid solution that
contains about 160 millimoles of hydrochloric acid per liter. The pH of
this acid is about 0.8, demonstrating its extreme acidity. At this pH, the
hydrogen ion concentration is about 3 million times that of the arterial
blood.
It is suggested that the HCl is formed in the following ways:
1. Chloride ion is actively transported from the cytoplasm of the parietal
cell into the lumen of the canaliculus, and sodium ions are actively
transported out of the canaliculus into the cytoplasm of the parietal cell.
2. Water becomes dissociated into hydrogen ions and hydroxyl ions in the
cell cytoplasm. The hydrogen ions are then actively secreted into the
canaliculus in exchange for potassium ions: this active exchange process is
catalyzed by H+,K+- ATPase. In addition, the sodium ions are actively
reabsorbed by a separate sodium pump. Thus, most of the potassium and
sodium ions that had diffused into the canaliculus are reabsorbed into the
cell cytoplasm, and hydrogen ions take their place in the canaliculus,
giving a strong solution of hydrochloric acid in the canaliculus. The
hydrochloric acid is then secreted outward through the open end of the
canaliculus into the lumen of the gland.
3. Water passes into the canaliculus by osmosis. Thus, the final secretion
from the canaliculus contains water, hydrochloric acid
4. Finally, carbon dioxide, either formed during metabolism in the cell or
entering the cell from the blood, combines under the influence of carbonic
anhydrase with the hydroxyl ions to form bicarbonate ions.
 Secretion and Activation of Pepsinogen
 As soon as pesinogen comes in contact with hydrochloric acid,
it is activated to form active pepsin.
 Pepsin functions as an active proteolytic enzyme in a highly
acid medium (optimum pH 1.8 to 3.5), but above a pH of
about 5 it has almost no proteolytic activity and becomes
completely inactivated in a short time.
Secretion of Intrinsic Factor
The substance intrinsic factor, essential for absorption of
vitamin B12 in the ileum, is secreted by the parietal cells along
with the secretion of hydrochloric acid.
PYLORIC GLANDS—SECRETION OF MUCUS AND
GASTRIN
The pyloric glands contain mostly mucous cells. These cells
secrete a small amount of pepsinogen, and an especially
large amount of thin mucus that helps to lubricate food
movement, as well as to protect the stomach wall from
digestion by the gastric enzymes. The pyloric glands also
secrete the hormone gastrin, which plays a key role in
controlling gastric secretion.
.

 Phases of Gastric secretion

 Cephalic Phase- The cephalic phase of gastric secretion
occurs even before food enters the stomach, especially
while it is being eaten.
 Gastric Phase- Once food enters the stomach, it excites

(1) Long vagovagal reflexes from the stomach to the

brain and back to the stomach
(2) Local enteric reflexes.
(3)The gastrin mechanism, all of which in turn cause
secretion of gastric juice.
 Pancreatic Secretion
 Intestinal Phase-
 The pancreatic digestive enzymes are secreted by pancreatic
acini, The combined product of enzymes and sodium
bicarbonate then flows through a long pancreatic duct that
normally joins the hepatic duct immediately before it
empties into the duodenum.
 The pancreas also secretes insulin, but this is not secreted by
the same pancreatic tissue that secretes intestinal pancreatic
juice. Instead, insulin is secreted directly into the blood—not
into the intestine—by the islets of Langerhans that occur in
islet patches throughout the pancreas.
.
PANCREATIC DIGESTIVE ENZYMES
 Trypsin and chymotrypsin split whole and partially digested
proteins into peptides of various sizes but do not cause release of
individual amino acids.
 Carboxypolypeptidase does split some peptides into individual

amino acids.
 Pancreatic amylase, which hydrolyzes starches, glycogen, and

most other carbohydrates (except cellulose) to form mostly

disaccharides and a few trisaccharides.
 The main enzymes for fat digestion are (1)pancreatic lipase,

which is capable of hydrolyzing neutral fat into fatty acids and

monoglycerides; (2)cholesterol esterase, which causes hydrolysis
of cholesterol esters; and (3) phospholipase, which splits fatty
acids from phospholipids.
 Digestion in the small intestine

 The enterocytes of the mucosa, especially those that cover

the villi, do contain digestive enzymes that digest specific
food substances while they are being absorbed through the
epithelium. These enzymes are the following:
 (1) several peptidases for splitting small peptides into

amino acids
 (2) four enzymes—sucrase, maltase, isomaltase, and

lactase for splitting disaccharides into monosaccharides

 (3) small amounts of intestinal lipase for splitting neutral

fats into glycerol and fatty acid

DIGESTION OF CHOLESTEROL
ESTERS AND PHOSPHOLIPIDS
 The enzyme cholesterol ester hydrolase to hydrolyze
the cholesterol ester, and phospholipase A2 to
hydrolyze the phospholipid.
 References:

 [Link] book of Medical Physiology( 13

th edition) By Guyton and Hall
2.
[Link]
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WIM%252CpR8TnMqZukrHUM%252C_&vet=1&usg=AI4_-kRw-2xtJR3cNnr8fGYOknL9CNA3p
w&sa=X&ved=2ahUKEwj4q4GUrerqAhWEXCsKHb95BhIQ9QEwCnoECAoQQw&biw=1146&b
ih=600#imgrc=XM1R7G5HtEbWIM
Supplementrary video link: [Link]
Digestive System, digestion
and absorption of food

Part-III: Absorption of the nutrients, ions and

water

Human Physiology (BCH201)

Mahboob Hossain
 Learning objective

 Absorption of the nutrients, ion and water

from GI tract
Secretions of the Large Intestine
 Mucus Secretion
The mucosa of the large intestine, protects the intestinal
wall from the great amount of bacterial activity that takes
place inside the feces and finally the mucus plus the
alkalinity of the secretion (pH of 8.0 caused by large
amounts of sodium bicarbonate) provides a barrier to keep
acids formed in the feces from attacking the intestinal wall.
 Anatomical Basis of Absorption
BASIC PRINCIPLES OF GASTROINTESTINAL ABSORPTION

 The total quantity of fluid that must be

absorbed each day by the intestines is equal
to the ingested fluid (about 1.5 liters) plus
that secreted in the various gastrointestinal
secretions (about 7 liters).
 This comes to a total of 8 to 9 liters. All but
about 1.5 liters of this is absorbed in the
small intestine, leaving only 1.5 liters to
pass through the ileocecal valve into the
colon each day.
 Absorptive Surface of the Small Intestinal Mucosa Villi
 Valvulae conniventes (or folds of Kerckring), which increase the
surface area of the absorptive mucosa about threefold.
 The combination of the folds of Kerckring, the villi, and the
microvilli increases the total absorptive area of the mucosa
perhaps 1000-fold, making a tremendous total area of 250 or
more square meters for the entire small intestine.
 Absorption of Water
 Isosmotic Absorption

Water is transported through the intestinal membrane

entirely by diffusion.
Absorption of Ion
Active Transport of Sodium
 Twenty to 30 grams of sodium are secreted in the intestinal secretions
each day. In addition, the average person eats 5 to 8 grams of sodium
each day. Therefore, to prevent net loss of sodium into the feces, the
intestines must absorb 25 to 35 grams of sodium each day.
 Whenever significant amounts of intestinal secretions are lost to the
exterior, as in extreme diarrhea, the sodium reserves of the body can
sometimes be depleted to lethal.
 Absorption of Bicarbonate Ions
Often, large quantities of bicarbonate ions must be reabsorbed from the
upper small intestine because of the large amounts of bicarbonate ions in
both the pancreatic secretion and bile.
Absorption of Other Ions
 Calcium ions are actively absorbed into the blood especially from the
duodenum. Parathyroid hormone secreted by the parathyroid glands which
activates vitamin D, and the activated vitamin D in turn greatly enhances
calcium absorption.
 Iron ions are also actively absorbed from the small intestine.
 Potassium, magnesium, phosphate, and probably still other ions can also be
actively absorbed through the intestinal mucosa.
ABSORPTION OF NUTRIENTS

Absorption of Carbohydrates
 By far the most abundant of the absorbed

monosaccharides is glucose, usually accounting for more

than 80 per cent of carbohydrate calories absorbed. The
remaining 20 per cent of absorbed monosaccharides are
composed almost entirely of galactose and fructose.
 Glucose is Transported by a Sodium Co-Transport

Mechanism.
 In the absence of sodium transport through the intestinal

membrane, virtually no glucose can be absorbed.

 Galactose is transported by almost exactly the same

mechanism as glucose and fructose is transported by

facilitated diffusion.
Absorption of Proteins
 Most proteins, after digestion, are absorbed through the luminal

membranes of the intestinal epithelial cells in the form of

dipeptides, tripeptides, and a few free amino acids.
 The energy for most of this transport is supplied by a sodium co-

transport mechanism in the same way that sodium co-transport

of glucose occurs.
Absorption of Fats
 In the presence of an abundance of bile micelles, about 97 per

cent of the fat is absorbed; in the absence of the bile micelles,

only 40 to 50 per cent can be absorbed.
 Direct Absorption of Fatty Acids into the Portal Blood

Small quantities of short- and medium-chain fatty acids, such as

those from butterfat, are absorbed directly into the portal blood
rather than being converted into triglycerides and absorbed by
way of the lymphatics.
 References:

 [Link] book of Medical Physiology( 13

th edition) By Guyton and Hall
2.
[Link]
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WIM%252CpR8TnMqZukrHUM%252C_&vet=1&usg=AI4_-kRw-2xtJR3cNnr8fGYOknL9CNA3p
w&sa=X&ved=2ahUKEwj4q4GUrerqAhWEXCsKHb95BhIQ9QEwCnoECAoQQw&biw=1146&b
ih=600#imgrc=XM1R7G5HtEbWIM
Thank you very much