Research
Methodology
[Link] Raghavan.M
[Link] Chemistry
BMSCE
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Module -1
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• Meaning
• Objectives
• Characteristics
• Methods vs Methodology
• Types of Research
• Research Process
• Criteria of good research
• Developing a research Plan 3
Meaning of Research
• The term ‘Research’ consists of two words:
Research = Re + Search
‘Re’ means again and again and ‘Search’ means to look
for something
• Research is an art of scientific investigation.
• It is a careful investigation or inquiry specially
through search for new facts in any branch of
knowledge”.
• Research is oriented towards the discovery of
relationship that exists among phenomena of the world
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in which we live.
Objectives of Research
The purpose of research is
to discover answers to questions through the
application of scientific procedures.
To find out the truth which is hidden and which has
not been discovered as yet
Research objectives fall into a number of following
broad groupings:
1. To gain familiarity with a phenomenon or to achieve
new insights into it [Exploratory or Formulative]
2. To portray accurately the characteristics of a
particular individual, situation or a group
[Descriptive]
3. To determine the frequency with which something
occurs [Diagnostic]
4. To test a hypothesis of a causal relationship between
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variables [Hypothesis-testing]
GENERAL CHARACTERISTICS OF RESEARCH
From these definitions, it is clear that research
process of
• Collecting
• Analysing and
• Interpreting information to answer questions.
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But to qualify as research, the
process must have certain
characteristics. It must be
• Controlled
• Rigorous
• Systematic
• Valid and Verifiable
• Empirical and
• Critical. 7
Controlled
• In real life there are many factors that affect
an outcome.
• A particular event is seldom the result of a
one-to-one relationship.
• Some relationships are more complex than
others.
• Most outcomes are a sequel to the interplay
of a multiplicity of relationships and
interacting factors.
• In a study of cause-and-effect relationships it
is important to be able to link the effect(s)
with the cause(s) and vice versa.
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• In practice, particularly in the social sciences,
it is extremely difficult – and often impossible –
to make the link.
• The concept of control implies that, in
exploring causality wrt two variables, you
minimises the effects of noise affecting the
relationship.
• This can be achieved to a large extent in the
physical sciences, as most of the research is
done in a laboratory.
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• However, in the social sciences it is
relating to human beings living in society,
where such controls are impossible.
• Therefore, in the social sciences you
attempt to quantify their impact.
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Rigorous
• Must ensure that the procedures
followed to find answers to questions
are relevant, appropriate and justified.
Systematic
• This implies that the procedures
adopted to undertake an investigation
follow a certain logical sequence.
• The different steps cannot be taken in
a haphazard way.
• Some procedures must follow others.
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Valid and verifiable
• This concept implies that whatever you conclude
on the basis of your findings is correct and can
be verified by you and others.
Empirical
• This means that any conclusions drawn are based
upon hard evidence gathered from real-life
experiences or observations.
Critical
• Critical scrutiny of the procedures used and the
methods employed is crucial to a research
enquiry. The process of investigation must be
valid proof and free from any drawbacks. The
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process adopted and the procedures used must
be able to withstand critical scrutiny.
Types of Research
(i) Descriptive vs. Analytical
(ii)Applied vs. Fundamental
(iii)Quantitative vs. Qualitative
(iv)Conceptual vs. Empirical
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Descriptive vs. Analytical
Descriptive research
• Includes surveys and fact-finding enquiries of
different kinds.
• The major purpose- description of the state of affairs
as it exists at present.
• In social science and business research, Ex post facto
research is used for descriptive research studies.
• Ex post facto research is used when it is not possible
to conduct experimental research.
• Ex. Investigating an accident which has already
occurred and there is no video of it. The scene is
reconstructed after the fact has occurred with the
help of statistics, examining the spot, statement of
witness and victims. The reason for the accident can
be driver’s negligence, over speeding, inefficient
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vehicle or effect of alcohol/drugs.
• The main characteristic- researcher has no
control over the variables; he can only report
what has happened or what is happening.
• Example: frequency of shopping, preferences
of people, or similar data.
Analytical research
• The researcher has to use facts already
available, analyze and make a critical
evaluation of the material.
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• Key characteristic:
The researcher applies critical thinking and logical
analysis to existing data to arrive at new insights.
• Common methods used in analytical research
include:
1. Content analysis
2. Comparative analysis
3. Statistical analysis
4. Cause–effect analysis
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Applied vs. Fundamental
Applied research
• Aims at finding a solution for an immediate
problem facing a society or an
industrial/business organisation
Ex. : (i) Castings produced by a particular method
are getting rejected Why?
(ii)Infiltration of Terrorists as refugees from across
the border
(iii) Marketing research or evaluation research .
(iv) Whether an Industry is sick or can it recover?
Should the Government take over?
• Central Aim: to discover a solution for some
pressing practical problem
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Fundamental or Pure research
• Mainly concerned with the formulation of a theory.
• “Gathering knowledge for knowledge’s sake is termed
‘pure’ or ‘basic’ research.
• Research concerning some natural phenomenon or
relating to pure mathematics are examples of
fundamental research.
Ex. (i) Research studies human behaviour to make
generalisations about human behaviour
(ii) Research to identify social, economic or political
trends that may affect a particular group
(iii) Research to find out whether certain
communications will be read and understood, population
Survey
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• Developing a sampling technique that can be
applied to a particular situation
• Developing a methodology to assess the
validity of a procedure
• Developing an instrument, say, to measure
the stress level in people
• Finding the best way of measuring people’s
attitudes
• Basic research is directed towards finding
information and adds to the already existing
organized body of scientific knowledge.
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Quantitative vs. Qualitative
Quantitative research
• Based on the measurement of quantity or
amount.
• It is applicable to phenomena that can be
expressed in terms of quantity.
Qualitative research
• Concerned with phenomena relating quality .
• Ex: Investigating the reasons for human
behaviour (i.e., why people think or do
certain things), often called ‘Motivation
Research’, an important type of qualitative
research. 20
• Aims at discovering the underlying motives
• Other techniques- word association tests,
sentence completion tests, story completion
tests.
• Attitude or opinion research i.e., research
designed to find out how people feel or what
they think about a particular subject or
institution.
• To apply qualitative research in practice one
should seek guidance from experimental
psychologists
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Conceptual vs. Empirical
Conceptual research
• Is related to some abstract idea(s) or
theory.
• It is generally used by philosophers
and thinkers to develop new concepts
or to reinterpret existing ones.
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Empirical research
• Relies on experience or observation alone,
often without due regard for system and
theory.
• It is data-based research, coming up with
conclusions which are capable of being
verified by observation or experiment.
• It can also be called as experimental research.
• In such a research it is necessary to get at
facts first hand, at their source, and actively
to go about doing certain things to stimulate
the production of desired information.
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• In such a research, provide a working hypothesis
• get facts (data) to prove or disprove his hypothesis.
• sets up experimental designs which produce the
desired information. It is characterised by the
experimenter’s control over the variables under
study and his deliberate manipulation of one of
them to study its effects.
• Empirical research is appropriate when proof is
sought that certain variables affect other variables
in some way.
• Evidence gathered through experiments or
empirical studies is today considered to be the
most powerful support possible for a given
hypothesis.
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Significance of Research
• Research inculcates scientific and inductive thinking and
it promotes the development of logical habits of thinking
and organisation.
• The role of research in several fields of applied
economics, whether related to business or to the economy
as a whole, has greatly increased in modern times
• Research provides the basis for nearly all government
policies in our economic system
• Research has its special significance in solving various
operational and planning problems of business and
industry.
• Research is equally important for social scientists in
studying social relationships and in seeking answers to
various social problems. 26
Research Methods versus Methodology
Research methodology
• It is a way to systematically solve the research
problem.
• It is a science of studying how research is done
scientifically.
• It is study of the various steps that are generally
adopted by a researcher in studying his research
problem along with the logic behind them.
Following are addressed .
(i) Which methods or techniques are relevant and
which are not
(ii) what would they mean and indicate and why
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For example
• An architect, who designs a building, has to
consciously evaluate the basis of his decisions,
i.e., he has to evaluate why and on what basis
he selects particular size, number and location
of doors, windows and ventilators, uses
particular materials and not others and the
like.
• Similarly, in research the scientist has to
expose the research decisions to evaluation
before they are implemented. He has to specify
very clearly and precisely what decisions he
selects and why he selects them so that they
can be evaluated by others also.
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• Research methods constitute a part of the research
methodology.
• The scope of research methodology is wider than that
of research methods.
• Followingquestions are answered in Research
Methodology
(i) Why a research study has been undertaken
(ii) how the research problem has been defined
(iii)in what way and why the hypothesis has been
formulated
(iv)what data have been collected and what particular
method has been adopted
(v) why particular technique of analysing data has been
used
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Research methods
• All those methods/techniques that are
used for conduction of research.
• Research methods or techniques, refer
to the methods the researchers use in
performing research operations
• All those methods which are used by
the researcher during the course of
studying his research problem are
termed as research methods.
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Various stages of Research
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1. Problem Definition
2. Literature Review
3. Hypotheses formulation
4. Research Design
5. Data collection
6. Data Analysis and Hypotheses testing
7. Interpretation ( Conclusions) and Report writing
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1. Formulating the research problem
1. Decide general area of interest
2. Problem Statement
Two steps are involved in formulating the resea
problem
• understanding the problem thoroughly
• rephrasing the same into meaningful terms from an analytical po
view.
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• Initially- stated in a broad general way
• then the ambiguities, if any, relating to the problem be resolve
• The feasibility of a particular solution has to be considered
before formulating the problem .
• The researcher must examine all available literature
• the conceptual literature
• the empirical literature .
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Academic institution- A guide usually an experienced man
puts forth the problem in general terms and the
researcher should narrow it down and phrase the problem
in operational terms.
In private business units or in governmental organisations-
the problem is usually earmarked by the administrative
agencies - researcher can discuss as to how the problem
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originally came about and what considerations are
involved in its possible solutions.
2. Extensive literature survey
• Afterproblem formulation, a brief
summary (Synopsis) is written.
• The synopsis of the topic is submitted it to
the necessary Committee or the Research
Board for approval.
• For this, the researcher should undertake
extensive literature survey connected with
the problem.
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• Academic journals, conference proceedings,
government reports, books etc., must be
tapped depending on the nature of the
problem.
• In this process, one source will lead to
another.
• If any similar studies available should be
carefully studied.
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3. Development of working hypotheses
• After extensive literature survey, researcher
should state in clear terms the working
hypothesis.
• Working hypothesis is tentative assumption
made in order to draw out and test its
logical or empirical consequences.
• Hypothesis should be very specific and
limited to the piece of research in hand 39
because it has to be tested.
• The role of the hypothesis - delimits the area
of research and to keep him on the right
track.
• Focuses attention on the more important
facets of the problem.
• Indicates the type of data required and the
type of methods of data analysis to be used.
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How to develop working
(a)
hypotheses?
Discussions with colleagues and experts
about the problem, its origin and the
objectives in seeking a solution;
(b) Examination of data and records, if
available, concerning the problem for
possible trends, peculiarities and other clues;
(c) Review of similar studies in the area or of
the studies on similar problems; and
(d) Exploratory personal investigation which
involves original field interviews on a limited
scale with interested parties and individuals
with a view to secure greater insight into the
practical aspects of the problem. 41
4. Preparing the research
• design
After formulating research problem, a research
design should be prepared ie the conceptual
structure within which research would be
conducted should be stated.
• This facilitates research to be as efficient as
possible yielding maximal information.
• It provides for the collection of relevant
evidence with minimal expenditure of effort,
time and money.
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• Research purpose
(i) Exploration
(ii) Description
(iii) Diagnosis
(iv) Experimentation.
• For exploration, a flexible research design
which provides opportunity for considering
many different aspects of a problem is
appropriate.
• For accurate description of a situation or of
an association between variables, the suitable
design will be one that minimises bias and 43
maximises the reliability of the data collected
and analysed.
Types of design
1. Experimental hypothesis testing
2. Non-experimental hypothesis testing.
For preparation of the research design, the
following are considered
(i) the means of obtaining the information
(ii) skills of the researcher
(iii) Organising the means and justifying the
selection
(iv) the time available for research
(v) the cost factor relating to research 44
Determining sample design
Universe or Population:
• All items under consideration in any field of inquiry
• No element of chance is left and highest accuracy is
obtained.
But in practice this is not possible because
• Inquiry will get larger and larger
• Involves a great deal of time, money and energy.
• Not possible in practice under given circumstances.
Ex. Blood testing is done only on sample basis.
• Hence, quite often only a few items from the universe are
selected for study.
• The items so selected constitute called a sample
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• A sample design is a definite plan determined before collec
the data.
• Samples can be either probability samples or non-probab
samples.
Probability samples are those based on
• simple random sampling
• systematic sampling
• stratified sampling
• cluster/area sampling
Non-probability samples are those based on
• convenience sampling
• judgement sampling
• quota sampling techniques. 46
5. Collecting the data
• In dealing with any real life problem, data
that are appropriate are to be collected.
• Primary data can be collected by
• Through experiment
• Through survey.
Through Experiment
• Some quantitative measurements are made
with the help of which the truth of the
hypothesis can be examined
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Through survey
(i) By observation
• Collection of information by investigator’s own observation,
without interviewing the respondents.
• The information obtained relates to what is currently happening
without concerning to the past or future
• Expensive and limited information .
• Not suitable when large samples
(ii) Through personal interview
• Rigid procedure is followed
• Seeks answers to a set of pre-conceived questions through
personal interviews.
• Carried out in a structured way
• output depends upon the ability of the interviewer. 48
(iii) Through telephone interviews
• Collecting information on telephone
• Not widely used method
• Used in developed regions when the survey has to be
accomplished in a very limited time.
(iv) By mailing of questionnaires
• Questionnaires are mailed to the respondents with a request
to return after completing the same.
• Most extensively used method in various economic and
business surveys.
• Questionnaire to be used must be prepared very carefully to
be effective in collecting the relevant information.
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(v) Through schedules (Formats)
• Enumerators are appointed and
trained.
• They are provided with schedules
containing relevant questions.
• They go to respondents with these
schedules and fill up the schedules
• Depends upon the capability of
enumerators
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6. Analysis of data
• Classification: Raw data is classified
into some purposeful and usable
categories.
• Editing : Improves the quality of the
data for coding
• Coding: operation of transforming
the categories of data into symbols
for tabulation and counting
• Tabulation: Technical procedure of
putting data in the form of tables. 51
• The collected data can be analyzed
Hypothesis-testing:
• Do the facts support the hypotheses or
contradict is the question which
should be answered while testing
hypotheses.
• Various tests have been developed by
statisticians for the purpose, such as
• Chi square test
• t-test
• F-test
• Hypothesis-testing will result in either
accepting the hypothesis or in rejecting
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it.
7. Generalisations and interpretation
• If a hypothesis is tested and upheld several
times, it may be possible to arrive at
generalisation.
• If the researcher had no hypothesis to start
with, he might seek to explain his findings
on the basis of some theory
• It is known as interpretation.
• The process of interpretation often trigger
off new questions which in turn may lead to
further researches.
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Preparation of the report or the thesis
1. The layout of the report should be as follows:
(i) the preliminary pages
(ii) the main text
(iii)the end matter.
• In its preliminary pages the report should carry
• Title and date
• Aknowledgements
• Foreword.
• Table of contents
• Lst of tables
• List of graphs and charts
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• The main text of the report should have :
(a) Introduction
• Objective of the research
• Methodology adopted
• The scope of the study
• Limitations
(b) Summary of findings
• Statement of findings
• Recommendations in non-technical language.
• If the findings are extensive, they should be summarised.
(c) Main report
• Should be presented in logical sequence
• broken-down into readily identifiable sections.
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(d) Conclusion:
The results of research should be clearly and
precisely presented
It is the final summing up.
• At the end of the report
• Appendices should be enlisted in respect of all
technical data.
• Bibliography, i.e., list of books, journals, reports,
etc., consulted, should also be given in the end.
• Index should also be given specially in a published
research report.
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2. Report should avoid vague expressions such
as ‘it seems,’ ‘there may be’, and the like.
3. Charts and illustrations in the main report
should be used only if they present the
information more clearly and forcibly.
4. Calculated ‘confidence limits’ must be
mentioned and the various constraints
experienced in conducting research operations
may as well be stated.
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Criteria of Good Research
Scientific research should satisfy the following
criteria
1. The purpose of the research should be clearly
defined and common concepts be used.
2. The research procedure used should be
described in sufficient detail to permit another
researcher to repeat the research for further
advancement, keeping the continuity of what has
already been attained.
3. The procedural design of the research should be
carefully planned to yield results that are as
objective as possible.
4. The researcher should report with complete
frankness, flaws in procedural design and estimate
their effects upon the findings. 58
5. The analysis of data should be sufficiently
adequate to reveal its significance and the
methods of analysis used should be
appropriate. The validity and reliability of the
data should be checked carefully.
6. Conclusions should be confined to those
justified by the data of the research and limited
to those for which the data provide an
adequate basis.
7. Greater confidence in research is warranted
if the researcher is experienced, has a good
reputation in research and is a person of
integrity.
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The qualities of a good research
1. Systematic
• Research is structured with specified steps
to be taken in a specified sequence in
accordance with the well defined set of
rules.
• It does not rule out creative thinking
• Rejects the use of guessing and intuition in
arriving at conclusions.
2. Logical
• Research is guided by the rules of logical
reasoning.
• Logical reasoning makes research more 60
meaningful in the context of decision
3. Empirical
• Research is related to one or more aspects
of a real situation and deals with concrete
data that provides a basis for external
validity to research results.
4. Replicable
• This characteristic allows research results
to be verified by replicating the study and
thereby building a sound basis for
decisions.
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