Chapter 2

Biological Molecules
Organic biomolecules
 Carbohydrates
 Lipids
 Proteins
 Nucleic Acids
 Vitamins And Coenzymes
Important inorganic molecules
Water
Minerals
 Biological Molecules
Biological molecules are the molecules of life (bio-
molecule
Basically found in a living cell and categorized as:
 organic and

 inorganic molecules in general

The organic biomolecules are: proteins, carbohydrates,

lipids and nucleic acids.
Without any of these molecules, a cell and organism can
not able to live.
 Carbohydrates (CHO)
 made of atoms of carbon, hydrogen and oxygen

 They are important source of energy, provide structural support for

cells and help with communication between cells (cell-cell recognition).

 found in the form of either a sugar or many sugars linked together, called
saccharides.

 Based on the number sugar units they contain, they are categorized into
three.

1. Monosaccharides

2. Disaccharides

3. Polysaccharides
 Cont’d

 Each of the sugar molecules are bonded together through the

glycosidic linkage.

 Carbohydrates are poly-hydroxy aldehydes or ketones, or

substances that yield these compounds on hydrolysis.

 Example: Glucose is aldehyde and fructose is Ketone.

 Monosaccharides - simple sugars with multiple OH groups.

 Based on number of carbons (3, 4, 5, 6), a monosaccharide is a triose,

tetrose, pentose or hexose.
Cont’d
 Cont’d
 Monosaccharides containing the aldehyde group are classified
as aldoses, and those with a ketone group are classified as
ketoses.

 Aldoses are reducing sugars; ketoses are non-reducing sugars.

 This is important in understanding the reaction of sugars with

Benedict's reagent.

 However, in water pentoses and hexoses exist mainly in the cyclic

form, and it is in this form that they combine to form larger
saccharide molecules.
 1. Monosaccharides

A. Glucose

Glucose is the most important carbohydrate fuel in human cells

 The small size and soluble in water these allows them to pass through
the cell membrane into the cell

Energy is released when the molecules are metabolized

Two glucose molecules react to form the disaccharide maltose.

Starch and cellulose are polysaccharides made up of glucose units

 B. Galactose
 They can also exist in α and β forms

 Galactose reacts with glucose to make the disaccharide lactose

 However, glucose and galactose cannot be easily converted into one

another. Galactose cannot play the same part in respiration as
glucose. galactose cannot directly enter the glycolytic pathway like
glucose, and therefore it cannot play the same role in respiration.

 This comparison of glucose and galactose shows why the

precise arrangement of atoms in a molecule (shown by the displayed
formula) is so important.
 C. Fructose

Fructose, glucose and galactose are all hexoses.

However, whereas glucose and galactose are aldoses (reducing

sugars), fructose is a ketose (a non-reducing sugar)

It also has a five-atom ring rather than a six-atom ring because
its ketone group (C=O) is located on the second carbon, leading to
ring closure via the reaction of the carbonyl group with the hydroxyl
group at carbon number 5, forming a five-membered ring

Fructose reacts with glucose to make the disaccharide sucrose

 D. Ribose and deoxyribose

Ribose and deoxyribose are pentose sugar

The ribose unit forms part of a nucleotide of RNA

The deoxyribose unit forms part of the nucleotide of DNA

 2. Disaccharides
• Most sugars found in nature are disaccharides.
• These form when two monosaccharides react.
• Disaccharides are soluble in water, but they are too big to pass
through the cell membrane by diffusion.
• They are broken down in the small intestine during digestion to
give the smaller monosaccharides that pass into the blood and
through cell membranes into cells.
C12H22O11 +H2O C6H1206 + C6H1206
• This is a hydrolysis reaction and is the reverse of a condensation
reaction and it releases energy.

A condensation reaction takes place by releasing water.

This process requires energy
 Cont’d
A glycosidic bond forms and holds the two
monosaccharide units together

 The three most important disaccharides are sucrose,

lactose and maltose.

They are formed from the a forms of the appropriate

monosaccharides. Sucrose is a non-reducing sugar.

Lactose and maltose are reducing sugars

Monosaccharides are used very quickly by cells. the simplest

form of carbohydrates, primarily for energy production, and
also for building other cellular components
 Cont’d
However, a cell may not need all the energy immediately and it
may need to store it

Monosaccharides are converted into disaccharides in the cell by

condensation reactions Further condensation reactions result in
the formation of polysaccharides.

These are giant molecules which, importantly, are too big to

escape from the cell

These are also broken down by hydrolysis into monosaccharides

when energy is needed by the cell
 3. Polysaccharides
 Monosaccharides can undergo a series of condensation reactions, adding
one unit after another to the chain until very large molecules
(polysaccharides) are formed

 This is called condensation polymerization, and the building blocks are

called monomers

 The properties of a polysaccharide molecule depend on:

 Its length (though they are usually very long)

 The extent of any branching (addition of units to the side of the chain rather
than one of its ends)

 Any folding which results in a more compact molecule

 Whether the chain is 'straight' or 'coiled'

 A. Starch
 Starch is often produced in plants as a way of storing energy
 It exists in two forms: amylose and amylopectin
 Both are made from α-glucose
 Amylose is an unbranched polymer of α-glucose
 The molecules coil into a helical structure
The α-helical structure is one of the most
important secondary structural elements in the
protein structural organization.
 It forms a colloidal suspension in hot water
 Amylopectin is a branched polymer of α-glucose
 It is completely insoluble in water
 B. Glycogen
Glycogen is a form of glucose, a main source of energy that your
body stores primarily in your liver and muscles

Glycogen is amylopectin with very short distances between the

branching side-chains

Starch from plants is hydrolyzed in the body to produce glucose.

Glucose passes into the cell and is used in metabolism

 Inside the cell, glucose can be polymerized to make glycogen

which acts as a carbohydrate energy store
 C. Cellulose
Cellulose is a third polymer made from β-glucose molecules and the
polymer molecules are straight (amylose)
Cellulose is a complex carbohydrate, the main structural component
of plant cell walls, providing strength and rigidity, and is a major
source of dietary fiber
Cellulose serves a very different purpose in nature to starch and it
makes up the cell walls in plant cells
These are much tougher than cell membranes, this toughness is due
to the arrangement of glucose units in the polymer chain and the
hydrogen-bonding between neighboring chains.
Cellulose is not hydrolyzed easily and, therefore, cannot be
digested so it is not a source of energy for humans.
The stomachs of Herbivores contain a specific enzyme called
cellulase which enables them to digest cellulose.
 2. Lipids (CHO)
 Lipids are a highly variable group of molecules that include
fats, oils, waxes and some steroids.

 They are esters (esters are typically formed through a reaction called esterification, where a carboxylic acid
reacts with an alcohol in the presence of an acid catalyst, releasing a water molecule ) of fatty acids and
alcohol (glycerol or chains of alcohols).

 Fatty acids are made mostly from chains of carbon and hydrogen and
they bond to a range of other types of atoms to form many different
lipids.

 The primary function of lipids is to store energy.

 Cont’d

 A lipid called a triglyceride is a fat if it is solid at room

temperature and an oil if it is liquid at room temperature.

 Triglycerides are stored in the fat cells , also called adipocytes or

lipocytes, and are responsible in storing fats and lipids which will
facilitate energy store in animals body.

 Fat cells are categorized as white fat (WAT) stores energy as

triglycerides for later use, while brown fat (BAT) burns energy to
generate heat, particularly in cold temperatures and beige fat, which
can be derived from white fat, exhibits characteristics of both
 Cont’d
 The difference is made from their ways of storing lipids

 White fat cells store one large lipid drop while brown fat cells store
smaller and multiple droplets of lipids spreading in the whole body of the
cell.

 Various types of lipids occur in the human body, namely triacylglycerol,

cholesterol, and polar lipids, which include phospholipids, glycolipids and
sphingolipids (crucial membrane lipids, with phospholipids containing
phosphorus, glycolipids containing carbohydrates, and sphingolipids
using sphingosine instead of glycerol as their backbone).

 Plant leaves are coated with lipids called waxes to prevent water loss, and
the honeycomb in a beehive is made of beeswax.
 Cont’d
 The basic structure of a lipid includes fatty acid tails (a type of
carboxylic acid with a long hydrocarbon chain, forming the
building blocks of lipids). Each tail is a chain of carbon atoms
bonded to hydrogen and other carbon atoms by single or double
bonds.

 Lipids that have tail chains with only single bonds between
the carbon atoms are called saturated fats because no more
hydrogens can bond to the tail.

 Lipids that have at least one double bond between carbon atoms
in the tail chain can accommodate at least one more hydrogen
and are called unsaturated fats.
 Cont’d

 Fats with more than one double bond in tail are called
polyunsaturated fats.
 Properties of lipids
Insoluble in water
Longer chains
More hydrophobic, less soluble (b/c they have a greater surface
area for intermolecular interactions, leading to stronger London
dispersion forces and a greater tendency to avoid interactions
with water)
Double bonds increase solubility
Melting points:
 Depend on chain length and saturation
Double bonds lead acyl chain disorder and low melting
temperatures
Unsaturated fatty acids are solid at room temperature.
 Cont’d

Importance of lipids
  As the main component of cell membranes (phospholipids)

  Insulation of heat and water,

  Storing energy, protection and cellular communication.

 3. Proteins (CHONS/R )

A protein is a compound made of small carbon compounds called

amino acids.

Amino acids are small compounds that are made of carbon,

nitrogen, oxygen, hydrogen, and sometimes sulfur. All amino
acids share the same in general structure.

Amino acids have a central carbon atom like the one shown in Fig

The carbon can form four covalent bonds and one of those bonds
is with hydrogen
Amino acids bond covalently via peptide bonds (amide bonds)
and non-covalently through hydrogen bonds between side chains
and backbone groups, contributing to protein structure and
function
The other three bonds are with an amino group (–NH2), a
carboxyl group (–COOH), and a variable group (–R)
 Proteins cont’d

 The variable group makes each amino acid different.

 There are 20 different variable groups, and proteins are made

of different combinations of all 20 different amino acids.
 Several covalent bonds called peptide bonds join amino acids
together to form proteins, which is also shown in Fig. 2.3
next slide a peptide forms between the amino group of one
amino acid and the carboxyl group of another.
 The number of amino acids in a chain and the order in which
the mino acids are joined define the protein’s primary
structure.
 After an amino acid chain is formed, it folds into a unique
three-dimensional shape, which is the protein’s secondary
structure.
 A protein might contain many helices, pleats, and folds.
 The tertiary structure of many proteins is globular, such as the
hemoglobin protein, but some proteins form long fibers.
 Some proteins form a fourth level of structure by combining with
other proteins.
 Proteins make up about 15% of our total body mass and are
involved in nearly every function of your body.

 Eg., our muscles, skin, and hair all are made of proteins.

 Your cells contain about 10,000 different proteins that provide

structural support, transport substances inside the cell and
between cells, communicate signals within the cell and between
cells, speed up chemical reactions, and control cell growth.
 4. Nucleic acids (CHONP)
 Nucleic acids are complex macromolecules that store and
transmit genetic information.

There are two types of nucleic acids in living organisms:

deoxyribonucleic acid (DNA) and ribonucleic acid (RNA).

In nucleic acids such as DNA and RNA, the sugar of one nucleotide
bonds to the phosphate of another nucleotide.

 They are made of smaller repeating subunits called nucleotides.

 Nucleotides are composed of carbon, nitrogen, oxygen, phosphorus,

and hydrogen atoms arranged as shown in Fig. 2.5/ next slide.
 Nucleotides, the building blocks of DNA and RNA, are composed
of a phosphate group, a nitrogenous base (adenine, guanine,
cytosine, thymine, or uracil), and a five-carbon sugar (ribose or
deoxyribose.

 A nucleotide with three phosphate groups is adenosine

triphosphate (ATP).

 ATP is a store house of chemical energy that can be used by

cells in a variety of reactions.

 It releases energy when the bond between the second and third
phosphate group is broken.
 Cont’d
There are two types of nucleic acids in living organisms:
deoxyribonucleic acid (DNA) and ribonucleic acid (RNA).
In nucleic acids such as DNA and RNA, the sugar of one
nucleotide bonds to the phosphate of another nucleotide.
Each of these nitrogenous base that sticks out from the chain is
available for hydrogen bonding with other bases in other nucleic
acids.
 5. Vitamins
Vitamins are organic compounds that are needed in small amounts
for metabolic activities.
Many vitamins help enzymes to function well.
Vitamin D is made by cells in your skin. Some vitamins B and
vitamin K are produced by bacteria living in the large
intestine.
Sufficient quantities of most vitamins cannot be made by the
body, but a well-balanced diet can provide the vitamins that are
needed.
 Some vitamins that are fat-soluble can be stored in small
quantities in the liver and fatty tissues of the body.
Other vitamins are water-soluble and cannot be stored in the
body.
Foods providing an adequate level of these vitamins should be
 Non organic
1. Water

 Water molecules are formed by covalent bonds that link two

hydrogen (H) atoms to one oxygen (O) atom, and each water
molecule has the same structure .

 It is one of the most plentiful and essential of compounds,

which is a tasteless and odorless, existing in gaseous, liquid, and
solid states.

 It has the important ability to dissolve and as a media for

transportation of many other substances.
 Cont’d

 In reality, the versatility of water as a solvent is essential to living

organisms, as well

Water molecules have an unequal distribution of charges and are

called polar molecules, meaning that they have oppositely charged
regions.
 2. Minerals
 Minerals are inorganic compounds used by the body as
building material, and they are involved with metabolic
functions.

For example, the mineral iron is needed to make hemoglobin

and it binds to hemoglobin in red blood cells and is delivered to
body cells as blood circulates in the body.

Calcium, and other minerals, is an important component of bones

and is involved with muscle and nerve functions and they serve
as cofactors for enzymes.
 Summary of chapter two
 Carbon compounds are the basic building blocks of living organisms.

 Biological macromolecules are formed by joining of small carbon

compounds into polymers.

 There are four types of biological macromolecules; carbohydrates,

proteins, lipids and nucleic acids

 Monosaccharides undergo condensation to form disaccharides and

poly saccharides through the glycosidic linkages

 Peptide bonds join amino acids in proteins.

 Lipids are esters of fatty acids and alcohols


Magnesium is an important component of the green pigment,
chlorophyll, involved in photosynthesis.