Cereal Chemistry

&
Bakery Technology

Lecturer:
Ms. L Ayeshmanthi Wickramaarachchi
Department of Food Technology
Group Project: Bakery Science & Technology
Challenge

Objective: Your group (max 6 members) will investigate a problem at

a local bakery and propose a solution based on food science
principles.

Identify a Technical Problem: Focus on an issue related to

ingredients, production, or product quality.

Timeline: You have 50 days to complete this project.

• A group report detailing the problem, your analysis, and your

proposed solution.
• A group presentation (dates to be announced).

Discuss your project ideas and challenges with the lecturer for
guidance.
Example (Bakery Science & Technology):

1. Recommend a modified proofing time to improve oven spring.

Problem: The bakery's whole-wheat bread has a dense, gummy

texture and low volume, making it unappealing to customers
compared to their white bread.

Investigation: Research the impact of bran on gluten development,

water absorption, and proofing times.

Proposed Solution:
Test adding a small percentage of vital wheat gluten to strengthen
the dough structure.
Experiment with adjusting water levels and incorporating dough
conditioners (e.g., ascorbic acid).
 BREAD
• BREAD whether sold as white bread or wheat bread or fancy or fruity
bread or bun or masala bread or milk bread or of any other name
• the product prepared from a mixture of wheat atta, maida, water, salt, yeast
or other fermentive medium containing one or more of the
following ingredients,
 Condensed milk, milk powder (whole or skimmed), whey, curd
 sugar, gur or jaggery, khandsari, honey, liquid glucose
 malt products, edible starches and flour, edible groundnut flour, edible
soya flour
 protein concentrates and isolates, Albumin
 Vanaspati, margarine or refined edible oil of suitable type or butter or ghee
or their mixture
 lime water
 lysine, vitamins
 spices and condiments or their extracts
 fruit and fruit product (Candied and crystallized or glazed)
 nuts, nut products
 Oligofructose (max 15%) and vinegar
• It may also contain food additives specified in these regulations
including Appendix A (Acid Regulators: Emulsifying and
Stabilising Agents singly or in combination, Improver, Flour
Treatment Agent, Antioxidant, Preservatives/Mould inhibitors
Singly or in combination, Colours, artificial sweetener, leavening
agent, flavour, flavour improver, dough conditioner, nutrient, yeast
etc.).
• It may also contain artificial sweetener as provided in regulation
3.1.3 of this regulation and label declaration in Regulation 2.4.5 (24,
25, 26, 28 & 29) of Food Safety and Standards (Packaging and
Labeling) Regulations, 2011.
• It shall conform to the following standards, namely:—
– alcoholic acidity (with 90 per cent alcohol) – Shall be not more than
equivalent of 7.5 ml. N NaOH per 100 g of dried substances
– ash insoluble in dilute HCL on dry weight basis —
• bread except masala bread or fruit bread – Not more than 0.1 per cent
• masala bread or fruit bread – Not more than 0.2 per cent
• It shall be free from dirt, insect and insect
fragments, larvae, rodent hairs and added
colouring matter except any permitted food
colours present as a carry over colour in
accordance with the provision in regulation
3.1.17, in raw material used in the products.
• It may contain Oligofructose (dietary fibres)
upto 15% maximum subject to label
declarationunder labelling regulation
2.4.5
(43) of Food Safety and Standards (Packaging
and Labeling) Regulations, 2011.
 Biscuits
• Biscuits including wafer biscuits shall be made from maida, vanaspati or
refined edible oil or table butter or desi butter or margarine or ghee or
their mixture containing any one or more of the following ingredients:
 Edible common salt
 butter, milk powder
 cereals and their products
 Cocoa, coffee extract
 edible desiccated coconut
 fruit and fruits products, dry fruit and nuts
 Egg, milk and milk products
 edible vegetable products, ginger, gluten groundnut flour
 honey, liquid glucose, Dextrose
 malt products, edible oilseeds, flour and meals
 spices and condiments
 edible starches such as potato starch and edible flours
 sugar and sugar products, invert sugar, jaggery
 protein concentrates
 oligofructose (max 15%)
 vinegar and other nutrients and vitamins
• It may contain food additives specified in these
regulations including Appendix A.
• It may contain artificial sweetener as provided in regulation
3.1.3 of these regulations and label declaration as provided
in regulation 2.4.5 (24, 25, 26, 28 & 29) of Food Safety and
Standards (Packaging and Labeling) Regulations, 2011.

Provided also that it shall conform to following standards,

namely:—
 ash insoluble in dilute hydrochloric acid (on dry
basis) – shall not be more than 0.1 per cent
 acidity of extracted fat (as oleic acid) – not exceeding 1.5
per
cent

• It may contain Oligofructose (dietary fibres) upto

15% maximum subject to label declaration under Regulation
(43) of Food Safety and Standards (Packaging and
Labeling) Regulations, 2011.
 Common ingredients in all baking

 Flour-proteins and starch in flour gives most of

the structure
 Liquid- Usually water or milk
 Leavening agents- causes product to rise (Air,
steam, baking powder, Baking Soda, Yeast)
 Fats- adds tenderness, richness and flavor
 Sweeteners-provides sweetness and flavor, makes
product tender, and helps crust brown, also act
as food for yeast
 Eggs- help form the structure and binds
 Flavoring- extract flavors, spices, herbs, nuts
 Flour
• Is a powdery substance produced by finely
grinding grain through a process called
milling.
• Wheat flour is by far the most common,
although other flours (e.g. rye flour) are used
in baking.
• The classification of flour is based on the
amount of protein that each type contains.
– Protein determines the gluten strength of the
flour.
• Gluten gives the dough its shape and form.
• All flours are composed largely from starch and protein, but
wheat flour is distinctive in that it has very high levels
of a class of proteins known collectively as gluten (8 -
14%).
• When a dough is made from wheat flour and water, the gluten
develops into a thick, cohesive, elastic mass.
• When placed in an oven, it puffs up to many times it original
volume and sets with a light, airy texture.
• This characteristic enables gluten to provide the structure in
baked goods, cakes and bread.
• In the network of gluten the starch granules are embedded.
Factors affecting quality of the flour:

• The wheat variety and conditions under which the wheat has
grown. This affects the quality and quantity of gluten in
the grain.
• The milling process. This determines the degree of separation
of the bran and endosperm, as well as the particle size of
the flour, an important factor in cake flour.
• Additives and special treatments used by the miller to
produce flour mixes with special characteristics.
(oxidation, bleaching)
[Link]
Different Types of Flour
 Bread Flour
• Has the highest
amount of protein
thus, has high
gluten content, so it
is used for breads.
• Bread flour is
creamy in color and
is rather rough and
granular.
Cake Flour
• Sometimes called
soft flour as it is
milled from soft
wheat. It is described
as weak because the
products made from
it are tender with
delicate texture.
 All-Purpose Flour
• Is made from a
combination of
bread and cake
flour sources and
has medium gluten
strength. It is
suitable for almost
any baking
purposes.
Self-Rising Flour
• Contains baking
powder and salt
Different Types of Flour
 Flour should be stored in a high
ventilated room free from insects and
rodents!
Flour should be kept away from products
with strong aromas such as spices and
onions!
Use the oldest flour first! “First in, first
out”
Flour should be kept in a dry tin or glass
container in a cool dry place!
 Bakery shortening
• Bakery shortening means vanaspati meant for use as a shortening or
leavening agent in the manufacture of bakery products, that is, for
promoting the development of the desired cellular structure in the
bakery product with an accompanying increase in its tenderness and
volume; this will also confirm to the standards prescribed in
regulation 2.2.6 (1) excepts that—
• (a) the melting point shall not exceed 41 °C.
• (b)if aerated, only nitrogen, air or any other inert gas shall be used
for the purpose and the
• quantity of such gas incorporated in the product shall not exceed 12
per cent by volume thereof.
• (c) it may contain added mono-glycerides and diglycerides as
emulsifying agents.
• Test for argemone oil shall be negative.
 Shortening
• Is another word for fat used in baking.
• The taste of the baked product depends greatly
on the flavor of the shortening.
1) It surrounds the gluten in the dough; it
shortens the strands and makes it a
more tender product.
2) It makes the product lighter with
greater volume.
3) It oils the structure of the product so it
is easier to chew and swallow.
Creaming

• Fat can trap air during beating and mixing, producing a batter
that consists of masses of tiny air bubbles trapped
within droplets of fat.

• This is very important in cake baking in which it is these air

bubbles that expand during baking forming a light,
airy structure.
Layering

• In puff pastry, fats which are soft over a wide

temperature range are used.
• These can be spread between pastry layers and will separate
them during cooking giving a layered pastry.
Flavour

• Usually the fats used should have a bland flavour to prevent

them from changing the flavour of the finished product,
but occasionally fats are chosen on the basis of their
flavour - e.g. using butter for particular baked goods and
lard for meat pie pastry.

In addition, the fat chosen needs to be able to form an emulsion

with the other ingredients in the batter or dough.
1) Plasticity – readily mixed, worked or
spread
2) Waxiness – soft and smooth
3) Pleasant Odor – no odor at all
4) Pleasant flavor – no unnecessary
flavor
Sugar
• Sugar is most commonly thought of as a sweetener, but in
baked goods it is also involved in several other processes.
• Sugar undergoes a series of complex browning reactions above
160oC, and the products of these form the brown crust of
many baked goods.
• The reactions are known as Maillard reactions, and are
essentially amino acid-catalysed caramelisation
reactions in which a sugar aldehyde or ketone is
converted to an unsaturated aldehyde or ketone:
• In addition, 0.5 - 0.75% w/w of sugar increases the rate of
fermentation for fermented goods (i.e. breads) by giving
the yeast more sugar to work on.

• In non-fermented goods such as biscuits, large quantities of

sugar can be added. This improves the keeping quality of
the biscuits as well as sweetening them.

• The sugar usually used is pure sucrose as castor sugar

(superfine), 10x (powdered sugar or icing
sugar), 1A sugar.

• Occasionally impure forms such as golden syrup, honey and

brown sugar are used to give the baking a particular flavour.
 UltraFine
• Is used for cakes
and cookies.
Sometimes this
sugar is called
“baker’s
special”
Granulated Sugar
• is the sugar
commonly
found on the
table at home
 Powdered Sugar
• Is frequently called
confectioner’s sugar
because it is used in
making frostings and
icings.
Molasses and brown sugar
1. Molasses is concentrated
sugar cane syrup with
the sugar removed.

2. Brown sugar is simple

white sugar with some of
the molasses left in.
You can make it by
mixing molasses with
sugar.
Corn
syrup
A liquid sweetener containing natural sugars called
fructose.

Honey
A natural sweetener containing fructose and
glucose.
1)It tenderizes the gluten.
2)It makes browner, crisper crust.
3)It helps baked products stay fresh
longer because it retains
moisture.
 Leavener or Leavening Agent
• Is a substance used in baking to make a
product rise so it becomes light a proportion
to its size.
• Leavening agents produce a gas that expands
when heated.
 AIR!!!!!!!
• Air works as a leavener because it expands
when heated. It can be incorporated into the
product by:
– Beating
– Folding in beaten egg whites
– Sifting the flour
– Creaming the shortening
 STEAM!!!!
• Is considered to be the most powerful leavener.
• Water changes to steam when heated causing
the mixture to rise.
 Chemical Leavening Agents
• Certain chemicals react to moisture and heat to form
carbon dioxide such as:
– Baking Soda –produce carbon dioxide when heated
– Baking Powder – most widely used leavener because of its
sure results. Baking soda+acid
Baking soda (NaHCO3)
• Sodium bicarbonate has the property of releasing CO2 when it
is heated:

• Since the material is relatively cheap and stable to storage,

it would seem to be an excellent agent for the production of
CO2.
• The equation, however, also illustrates the
above
disadvantages of the material.
• When used on its own, only half the available CO2 is released
and, more seriously, the sodium carbonate produced is
strongly alkaline and gives the baked product a bitter,
"soapy" taste and a yellow colour.

• The digestion of such products also tends to be somewhere

between embarassing and traumatic, since the Na2CO3
reacts with the HCl in the stomach to produce the other
half of the available CO2.
• For the above reasons, it must be stressed that sodium
bicarbonate is very rarely used on its own, but generally
mixed with some acidic material such as cream of tartar
(Potassium bitartrate) are used with sodium bi carbonate.

• To avoid an imbalance between the acidic and basic materials,

i.e. an incorrect pH, baking powder is more commonly used.
 Ammonium Bi Carbonate
• NH4HCO3 NH3+H2O+CO2

• Used in biscuits and crackers as they have

large surface and ammonia can escape easily
when baked at high temperature
Baking powder
• Baking powder is essentially a mixture of NaHCO3 and a weak solid
acid or acid salt. When the mixture dissolves in water and the
temperature is raised, CO2 is released according to the equation:

• Named after the acid component e.g tartarate

powder, phosphate powder and combination
powder.
• Baking powder also contains an inert filling/
diluent commonly corn starch that works as buffer
between soda and acid and also prevents their
going into action, when exposed to air by
absorbing water.
• The rate of gas release from the solution controls the size of the
bubbles in the dough and consequently influences the grain,
texture and volume of the finished product.
• Acetic acid from vinegar or lactic acid from sour milk usually act
much too fast.
• Amount of soda is kept constant but the acid varies to control the
amount of CO2 to be releases
Fast acting
• Tartarates are fast acting and releases all the gas
at room temperature
• Phosphstes (mono calcium phosphate) are relatively
slow but loses all the gas before baking
Slow acting
• Release very little gas at room temperature
but releases all at oven temperature
• E.g. Sodium aluminium sulphate
Double acting
• Begin to react at low temperature and give some
smoothness & viscosity to the batter but action
is completed only at high temperature
• 2 acid componenets: monocalcium phosphate
and Sodium aluminum sulphate
Yeast

• Yeast is made up of many tiny, single-celled

microorganism, which grow by budding, each
bud breaking away from the parent cell and
forming new buds.
• The conditions required for growth are warmth
(optimum 25-30oC), moisture and food (starch
plus a small amount of sugar).
• Refrigeration slows down the growth so that yeast
can be kept for a limited period of time.
• When the yeast is used, the conditions and the
utensils should be kept lukewarm to obtain the
best results.
• As soon as the yeast has been added to the dough or
batter, the yeast begins to feed on the starch in
the mixture, forming alcohol and carbon dioxide.

• The bubbles of CO2 cause the dough to expand

("rise"). The dough must be "kneaded“
thoroughly to distribute the bubbles evenly
and then left to rise again, usually to about
double its original volume.

• If the mixture is left too long, acid produced by the

oxidation of the alcohol causes the product to
taste sour.
 Compressed Yeast
• Also called cake
yeast; it can be
stored for four to
five weeks in a
refrigerator
• Moisture content
about 70%
Dry Yeast
• Is granular and
darker in color
than cake yeast. It
is purchased in
sealed packs or
envelopes to
ensure freshness.
• Moisture content
about 8%
Liquids are essential in the baking process
because gluten cannot develop without the
presence of some liquid
Water
• Gives different
texture to baked
items especially
breads and rolls.
The texture of a
baked product is
coarse and chewy if
water is used
instead of milk.
 Milk and cream
–Add texture, flavor, nutritional
value and color to baked goods
–Whole milk and cream contain
fat, which must be accounted
for as part of the shortening in
baking formulas
–Powdered dry milk is often used
because of low cost and
convenience
Egg
• The egg in a mixture usually has one of two functions. Beaten egg
white is used, like baking powder, to give the dough a light, airy
texture.
• This is achieved because egg white (albumin) contains lecithin, a
protein which lines the outside of the air bubbles created when the
egg was beaten and so prevents them from collapsing during baking.
• In unbeaten whole eggs the lecithin acts as a binder, holding the
cake together.
• In addition eggs can be used as emulsifiers, moisteners (instead of
simply adding water) and, nutritionally, as a source of fat and all the
essential amino acids.
• Egg is also used as a source of protein for the Maillard reaction.

• Eggs also add moisture, flavor, nutritional value and color

to baked goods.
• Eggs perform important functions in cakes that
other ingredients cannot do.
• Eggs are essential because they maintain
tender the structure of the cake or baked
product.
• Eggs hold together the other ingredients
during mixing and baking.
 Salt
– Salt strengthens gluten and makes it
more stretchable in bread
doughs.
With salt present, gluten holds more
water and carbon dioxide, allowing
the dough to expand without tearing.
– Salt helps control yeast growth in
doughs because it acts against
the yeast
– Salt enhances the flavor of most
foods
 Chocolate and Cocoa
• Are highly
prized for their
flavor, aroma
and deep brown
color.
 Fruit Flavors and Spices
• Are extracts from the base of
fruits.
• They add pleasant odor to
baked products.
• Spices add flavor and interest
to baked goods

• The most commonly used are

cinnamon, nutmeg, mace,
cloves and ginger

• Most spices are made from the

bark, nuts, seeds or roots of
tropical plants
 Extracts and emulsions
 Extracts are oils dissolved in alcohol
1. Vanilla extract is a common example
2. Vanilla beans are processed to extract the oils
from them and this is dissolved in alcohol. True
vanilla extract and vanilla beans are quite
expensive, partly because of the current
popularity of novelty items such as vanilla flavored
soft drinks and vanilla scented cosmetics and soaps

 Emulsions are oils mixed with water

1. Lemon and orange emulsions are the most common
2. Lemon or orange oil is extracted from the skin,
where most of the flavor is and mixed with water.
You can zest or grate lemon or orange skins
yourself to add to baked goods for the same flavor
Ascorbic acid (vitamin C)

• It has been observed from many experiments that the addition

of a small amount (up to 100ppm) of vitamin C also
shortens the time needed for the dough to mature.

• This is because ascorbic acid catalyses the gluten crosslinking

reactions to form a more extensible, elastic, strong network.
Thank You