Lithosphere and Soil

Chemistry
Objectives
Explain features of lithosphere;
Determine nature and composition of soil;
Identify organic matter and macro-nutrients in soil;
Identify the different waste and pollutants in the soil;
Appreciate the importance of healthy lithosphere in
humanity.
The Lithosphere
 a lithosphere is a rigid, rocky outer layer of Earth,
consisting of the crust and the solid outermost layer of
the upper mantle. It extends to a depth of about 60 miles
(100 km). It is broken into about a dozen separate, rigid
blocks, or plates
 the lithosphere is composed of seven major plates, namely; Pacific
plate, North American plate, South American plate, Eurasian plate, African
plate, Antarctic plate, Australian plate,
Lithosphere
These plates “float” upon an underlying zone of
weakness called the asthenosphere.
 The plates carry continents and oceans with them as
they form a continually changing jigsaw puzzle on the
face of the earth.
Lithosphere
The word “lithosphere” is derived from the Greek lithos,
meaning “stone”.
Historically, the lithosphere was considered to be the
solid crust of the earth, as distinguished from the
atmosphere and the hydrosphere.
The words “crust” and “lithosphere” were used
interchangeably to mean the unmoving, rocky portions
of the earth's surface.
Lithosphere
Advances in the understanding of the structure of the
earth's interior, resulting mostly from seismology, have
forced the redefinition of old terms.
“Crust” presently refers to the rocky, outer “skin” of the
earth, containing the continents and ocean floor.
“Lithosphere” is a more comprehensive term that
includes the crust within a thicker, rigid unit of the
earth's outer shell.
Lithosphere
Main composition
of lithosphere
include the crust
(continental crust
and oceanic crust),
the tectonic plates,
and the upper
mantle
(asthenosphere).
 Nature and Composition of Soil
• Soil is the loose surface material that covers most land.
It consists of inorganic particles and organic matter. Soil
provides the structural support for plants used in
agriculture and is also their source of water and
nutrients.
 Nature and Composition of Soil

• Soils vary greatly in their chemical and physical properties.

Processes such as leaching, weathering and microbial
activity combine to make a whole range of different soil
types. Each type has particular strengths and weaknesses
for agricultural production.
The physical characteristics of soil include all the aspects
that you can see and touch, such as:
Texture – The feel of the soil, determined by the proportions of
sand, silt, and clay.
Colour – Indicates organic matter, moisture, and mineral
content (e.g., dark = rich in organic matter).
Depth – How deep the soil layer extends before hitting bedrock
or a hard layer.
Structure – How soil particles are grouped together into
clumps or aggregates.
Porosity – The amount of open space between soil particles
where air and water can move.
Stone content – The amount of gravel or rock fragments
present in the soil.
Soil Texture
Soil Texture
The combination of mineral fractions (gravel, sand, silt
and clay particles) and organic matter fraction give soil
its texture. Texture grades depend upon the amount of
clay, sand, silt and organic matter present.
The solid part of the soil is made up of particles such as
organic matter, silt, sand and clay which form
aggregates. Aggregates are held together by clay
particles and organic matter. Organic matter is one of
the major cementing agents for soil aggregates. The
size and shape of aggregates give soil a characteristic
called soil structure.
Soil Texture
Soil structure influences plant growth by affecting the
movement of water, air and nutrients to plants.
Sandy soils have little or no structure but are often free
draining.
With higher clay content, the soil structural strength
increases, but its drainage ability often decreases.
Heavy clays can hold large amounts of water and, as
infiltration rates are slow, they tend not to be well
drained, unlike sand or loam soils with no or a lower
clay content.
Soil colour
Soil colour can indicate the organic matter content of
soil, the parent material soil is formed from, the degree
of weathering the soil has undergone and the drainage
characteristics of the soil.
The colour of the soil is the main indicator of how soils
drain.
Lighter coloured soils can generally indicate low
fertility, for example, white sands. While darker soils
(like black clays) are quite fertile.
Table 1: Soil colour and indications

Soil colour Indication

Dark brown High organic matter content

Black Humus

•Presence of iron
•Phosphorous may be less available to
Red
the plant
•Free draining

•Moist conditions
Yellow •Restrictive drainage
•Less weathering

•Poor drainage
Grey, Blue/green hues
•Waterlogging
Soil Composition
Soil is composed of four
main
components: mineral
matter, organic matter,
water, and air.
In an ideal soil, these
components are roughly
45% mineral, 25% organic
matter, 25% water, and
25% air, though these
proportions can change
depending on factors like
Soil Composition
• Organic matter – This is the decayed
remains of plants and animals in the soil. It
improves soil fertility by supplying nutrients
as it breaks down, helps the soil hold water,
improves structure, and supports soil
organisms that keep the soil healthy.
• Macro-nutrients – These are the nutrients
that plants must have in large quantities to
grow properly. The primary macro-nutrients
are nitrogen (N), which supports leafy
growth; phosphorus (P), which is vital for
roots, flowers, and energy transfer; and
potassium (K), which helps overall plant
health and disease resistance. The
secondary macro-nutrients calcium (Ca),
magnesium (Mg), and sulphur (S) are
also needed for strong cell walls, chlorophyll
production, and protein formation.
 Soil Pollutants
Soil pollution is described as the accumulation of
persistent harmful substances, chemicals, salts,
radioactive elements, or disease-causing agents in soils,
which hurts plant development and animal health.
 Soil Pollutants
It can occur in a variety of ways, including:
• Leachate from a landfill
• Industrial waste discharges onto the soil
• Contaminated water percolates through the soil
• Underground storage tank rupture
• Excessive use of harmful chemical pesticides or fertilizer
• Seepage of solid waste
 Soil Pollutants
Types of Soil Pollutants:
• Agents of biology: Inside the soil, biological agents
operate to incorporate manures and digested sludge
(derived from human, avian, and animal excrement) into
the soil.
• Agriculture Practices: pesticides, fertilizers, herbicides,
slurry, waste, and manure all pollute crop soil to varying
degrees.
• Radioactive Pollutants: Radium, Thorium, Uranium,
Nitrogen, and other radioactive chemicals can enter the
soil and cause hazardous effects.
 Soil Pollutants
Types of Soil Pollutants:
• Urban Waste: Waste and refuse items, dried sludge, and sewage
from home and commercial waste comprise urban waste.
• Industrial Waste: Paper mills, oil refineries, sugar factories,
petroleum industries, and others generate steel, pesticides, textiles,
pharmaceuticals, glass, cement, and so on. Mining operations,
nuclear fuel preparation, coal combustion, chemical manufacture,
leather tanning, electronic waste, and industrial waste are all sources
of heavy metal contamination.
• Heavy metal contamination is a public health risk, particularly for
youngsters and pregnant women, because heavy metals can become
highly concentrated in soils and remain latent for many years without
decomposing.
 Soil Pollutants
How to Control Soil Pollution?
1. CHEMICAL FERTILIZERS SHOULD BE USED
LESS: Chemical fertilizers are more damaging than
beneficial. While the right quantity can help the land
become more fertile, too much might potentially poison
it. Chemical fertilizers in excess could harm the soil in a
variety of ways. It has the potential to alter the soil’s pH
values. It could also wipe off beneficial soil bacteria. Not
only that, but the runoff from such soils pollutes the
water supply. As a result, utilizing chemical fertilizers is a
two-edged sword.
 Soil Pollutants
2. BY PROMOTING REFORESTATION AND
AFFORESTATION: Soil erosion, which is produced by
deforestation, is one of the major sources of soil
contamination. With an ever-increasing population, it is only
logical that humanity requires more and more room to expand
its civilization. It is frequently accomplished at the expense of
soil health. Reforestation of a deforested area should be
encouraged to avoid this from happening. In addition,
afforestation in the arid plains should be encouraged. Plant
roots link soil particles together and even catch beneficial
microbes in the soil. It also guarantees that the subsurface
water table is maintained.
 Soil Pollutants
3. INVOLVING THE COMMUNITY: Everyone must
participate to remedy a problem like soil pollution.
Things are more likely to work out if they are involved.
People could be educated about soil pollution through
awareness activities. People would help even
subconsciously if they were aware.
 Soil Pollutants
4. ENCOURAGE THE USE OF ORGANIC
MANURES: One of the best sources of nutrients for the
soil is natural manure. It’s 100% natural and safe. It
replenishes the soil’s critical nutrients and improves its
overall health. It doesn’t produce any toxic by-products
that could affect the soil or the environment. Purchase
organic products, including cleansers, pesticides,
insecticides, and fertilizers. Organic products have the
advantage of being biodegradable and environmentally
friendly.
References
Unistar Aquatech Pvt. Ltd. (n.d.). Types of soil pollutants and
their impact. Retrieved December 3, 2025, from
[Link]
tml
National Geographic Society. (2023, November 29).
Lithosphere. In National Geographic Education. Retrieved
December 3, 2025, from
[Link]
The Editors of Encyclopaedia Britannica. (2025, November 27).
Lithosphere. In Britannica. Retrieved December 3, 2025, from
[Link]
Brady, N. C., & Weil, R. R. (2017). The nature and properties of
soils (15th ed.). Pearson. [Link]+[Link]+2