Reproduction

SL Content Statements
1. Differences between sexual and asexual reproduction
2. Role of meiosis and fusion of gametes in the sexual
life cycle
3. Differences between male and female sexes in sexual
reproduction
4. Anatomy of the human male and female reproductive
systems
5. Changes during the ovarian and uterine cycles and
their hormone regulation
6. Fertilization in humans
7. Use of hormones in in vitro fertilization (IVF) treatment
SL Content Statements
8. Sexual reproduction in flowering plants
9. Features of an insect-pollinated flower
[Link] of promoting cross-pollination
[Link]-incompatibility mechanisms to increase genetic
variation within a species
[Link] and germination of seeds
HL Content Statements
[Link] of the developmental changes of puberty by
gonadotropin-releasing hormone and steroid sex hormones
[Link] and oogenesis in humans
[Link] to prevent polyspermy
[Link] of a blastocyst and implantation in the endometrium
[Link] testing by detection of human chorionic gonadotropin
secretion
[Link] of the placenta in fetal development inside the uterus
[Link] control of pregnancy and childbirth
[Link] replacement therapy and the risk of coronary heart
disease
Asexual vs Sexual Reproduction
• Compare and contrast!
Asexual Reproduction
The mechanism by which asexual reproduction occurs depends on the organism involved:
• Asexual methods include binary fission (bacteria), budding (yeast), vegetative propagation
(plants), fragmentation (starfish) and sporogenesis (certain types of fungi)

• Multicellular organisms may also regrow tissues and organs via regeneration (mitosis) –
while this will not produce autonomous life, it is considered a type of asexual reproduction

BINARY FISSION BUDDING PROPAGATION FRAGMENTATION SPOROGENESIS

Reproduction
Reproduction involves the formation of new life (offspring) via asexual or
sexual mechanisms.

Advantages of Asexual Reproduction:

• A single parental organism produces genetically identical offspring
(clones), resulting in the offspring having adaptations suited to an
existing environment

Advantages of Sexual Reproduction:

• Two parents produces offspring with new gene combinations, resulting in
the offspring having the genetic variation needed for adaptation to a
D3.1.1 Differences between sexual and asexual reproduction
• Which process of cell division is essential for sexual, but
not asexual reproduction?
Meiosis halves
genetic material
and introduces
new combinations
of genes
Sexual Reproduction
Sexually reproducing organisms are diploid – they have two Haploid Sex Cells
of every chromosome (one maternal and one paternal copy)
Eg
g
In order to reproduce, the sex cells of these organisms must Sper
m
be haploid – only having one copy of each chromosome pair MEIOSIS FERTILISATION
• The formation of haploid cells involves a meiotic division
Zygot
e
When two haploid gametes are fused, the resulting zygote
MITOSIS
will be diploid and can undergo mitosis to form more cells
• Sexual reproduction produces new allele combinations Diploid Adult Cells

D3.1.2 Role of meiosis and fusion of gametes in the sexual life cycle
Can the difference in gamete production explain human reproductive
strategies?
Female animals usually only produce a few or single eggs to be fertilised
● They tend to choose their partners very carefully and not have multiple
partners.
● Once pregnant there is no advantage to having further sexual
intercourse
Male animals produce many sperm and do not become pregnant
● They is not the same need to be selective about partners
● No time periods where reproduction is not possible
Gametes
Gametes are the haploid reproductive cells that are required for sexual reproduction
• The process of gamete formation (gametogenesis) differs between male and female sexes

MALES FEMALES
Produce sperm via spermatogenesis Produce eggs (ova) via oogenesis

Occurs in the testes (male gonads) Occurs in the ovaries (female gonads)
Four sperm produced per germ cell Only one egg produced per germ cell
(other cells form extra polar
bodies)
Production is lifelong (from puberty)
Production is finite (until menopause)

D3.1.3 Differences between male and female sexes in sexual reproduction

 Male gamete Female gamete
Motility Male gametes travel to Female gametes are
the female sessile

Size Smaller Larger

Food reserves Less - only enough for More - enough for
the gamete development of
embryo

Numbers produced Many Few

Sperm vs Egg
The function of the male sperm is to traverse the female reproductive
organs and fuse its nuclei material with the female gamete (an ovum)

• The sperm is consequently much smaller than the egg and contains
less food reserves (all cellular material is provided by the egg cell)

The female egg forms the basis of the new organism when fertilised –
it contains all the organelles and cytoplasmic content for the new cell

• The egg is consequently much larger than the sperm and does not
require cellular features (such as flagella) to facilitate movement
Male System
The main structures that comprise the male
Ureter
reproductive system include the following:
Bladder
• Testes: Produces sperm and testosterone
Seminal
• Epididymis: Site where the sperm matures Prostate Vesicle
Gland
• Vas Deferens: Carries sperm from testes Erectile
Vas Deferens Tissue
• Seminal Vesicle: Makes fructose (nutrition)
• Prostate Gland: Makes an alkaline solution Epididymis Urethra

• Urethra: Carries sperm out of the body Penis Testis

• Penis: External organ used for copulation

D3.1.4 Anatomy of the human male and female reproductive systems
Female System
The main structures that comprise the female Uterus
reproductive system include the following:

• Ovaries: Produces ova and female hormones

• Fimbriae: Sweeps oocytes into the oviduct
• Oviduct: Transfer ova to the uterus
Endometrium Ovary
• Uterus: Organ where fertilised egg develops
• Endometrium: Mucous layer lining the uterus Fimbria
Fallopian Tube
• Vagina: External passage leading to the uterus (Oviduct) Vagina

• Cervix: End of uterus that connects to vagina

D3.1.4 Anatomy of the human male and female reproductive systems
Reproductive Systems - Label
MALE REPRODUCTIVE SYSTEM FEMALE REPRODUCTIVE SYSTEM

1 2 1 2

3
3

6 5

4 6
5

D3.1.4 Anatomy of the human male and female reproductive systems

How long does an average menstrual cycle take?

On average how many days of bleeding?

On average how many ml of blood loss in total?

If bleeding starts on day 1, on which day is she most fertile?

How long does an average menstrual cycle take?
28 days
On average how many days of bleeding?
5 days
On average how many ml of blood loss in total?
30-40mL (~2-3 tbsp)
If bleeding starts on day 1, on which day is she most fertile?
Around day 14
Menstrual Cycle
The menstrual cycle describes the monthly changes that occur
within the female reproductive system to facilitate pregnancy
• This cycle is controlled by two main groups of hormones

Pituitary Hormones: FSH and LH PITUITARY HORMONES

• Act on the ovaries to develop follicles (stores an oocyte)

Ovarian Hormones: Estrogen (Oestradiol) and Progesterone

• Act on the uterus to develop the endometrial lining
• Act on the pituitary gland to regulate FSH and LH release OVARIAN HORMONES
D3.1.5 Changes during the ovarian and uterine cycles and their hormonal regulation
Ovarian Cycle
The ovarian cycle outlines the role of pituitary hormones in ovarian follicle development
• Follicle stimulating hormone (FSH) is secreted from the anterior pituitary and stimulates
the growth and maturation of ovarian follicles (each follicle contains a developing egg cell)
• A dominant follicle begins to secrete estrogen, which inhibits FSH secretion via negative
feedback (this prevents other follicles from developing during this particular cycle)
• Midway through the cycle (~day 14), estrogen stimulates the pituitary (positive feedback)
to release luteinising hormone (LH) – this LH surge triggers ovulation (an egg is released)
• The ruptured follicle becomes a corpus luteum and secretes estrogen and progesterone,
which inhibit FSH release – when the corpus luteum degenerates, the cycle starts anew
D3.1.5 Changes during the ovarian and uterine cycles and their hormonal regulation
Ovarian Cycle (Pituitary Hormones)

LH KEY EVENTS:
FSH FSH triggers follicle
growth / maturation

An LH surge causes
ovulation to occur

The corpus luteum

degrades and the
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18 19 20 21 22 23 24 25 26 27 28 cycle starts anew

D3.1.5 Changes during the ovarian and uterine cycles and their hormonal regulation
Uterine Cycle
The uterine cycle outlines the role of the ovarian hormones in endometrium development
• Estrogen (oestradiol) is released from the developing follicles and stimulates endometrial
growth (the uterine lining begins to thicken and vascularise to prepare for implantation)
• When the follicle ruptures (ovulation), estrogen levels temporarily decrease but then will
rise – along with progesterone – as these hormones are released from the corpus luteum
• Progesterone will promote the further development of the endometrial lining until the
corpus luteum degenerates – if this occurs then levels of the ovarian hormones will drop
• When estrogen and progesterone levels drop, the endometrium cannot be maintained and
is sloughed away (menstruation) – but this does not happen if a fertilised egg is implanted
D3.1.5 Changes during the ovarian and uterine cycles and their hormonal regulation
Uterine Cycle (Ovarian Hormones)

KEY EVENTS:

Estrogen Estrogen promotes

endometrial growth
Progesterone
Progesterone also
supports the growth

If levels drop, then

the endometrium
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18 19 20 21 22 23 24 25 26 27 28 is sloughed away

D3.1.5 Changes during the ovarian and uterine cycles and their hormonal regulation
Hormones
• Estrogen  egg
• Prepares body for ovulation
• Progesterone  pregnancy
• Prepares for pregnancy/implantation
1. Menstruation
The endometrium (lining of the
uterus) is shed.
Bleeding lasts on average 5 days
2. Follicular phase
Overlap - Starts on first day of
menstruation (day 1)
(around 10) follicles containing
eggs are stimulated to be
produced on the surface of the
ovaries.
Eventually only one will fully
mature and be released.
(The follicular phase is the most variable in
length)
3. Ovulation
One follicle matures fully and
bursts to release an egg.
Egg is funneled through fallopian
tube towards uterus
4. Luteal phase
Empty follicle becomes corpus
luteum.
Corpus luteum begins to produce
progesterone.
Progesterone promotes
endometrial thickening
to support growing
embryo.
If no fertilisation then corpus luteum
stops producing progesterone and
endometrium is shed again -
menstruation
Can you identify which hormones are represented by the letters?
Positive feedback

FSH causes follicles to develop and release oestrogen

Oestrogen increases number of FSH receptors on follicles
Follicles respond more to FSH
More follicles develop

Positive feedback!
Negative feedback

Higher levels of oestrogen inhibit FSH release from pituitary

Therefore less stimulation of follicles and less oestrogen produced

Negative feedback!
Negative feedback

FSH leads to development of follicle and ultimately progesterone release

from corpus luteum

Progesterone inhibits FSH release

Negative feedback!
Fertilization
The process of fertilisation (egg and sperm fusion) involves a number of key steps:
• The sperm nucleus enters the egg but the tail and mitochondria (mid piece) are destroyed
• The nuclear membranes of both egg and sperm dissolve, allowing two sets of condensed
chromosomes to undergo a joint mitosis (as the resulting zygote is now a diploid cell)

D3.1.6 Fertilization in humans

IVF
IVF describes fertilisation occurring outside of the body

• Stop the normal menstrual cycle with drug treatments

• Hormone therapy (e.g. FSH) induces superovulation
• Extract multiple eggs from the ovaries
• Sperm is collected and prepared (e.g. capacitation)
• Fertilisation occurs externally (i.e. in vitro)
• Implant multiple embryos into a suitable surrogate
Mnemonic:
• Test for pregnancy after an appropriate passage of time SHE’S FIT
D3.1.7 Use of hormones in in vitro fertilization (IVF) treatment
Carpel
Plant Reproduction
Plant reproduction can involve asexual or sexual mechanisms:
• Asexual – Vegetative propagation of plant cuttings (cloning)
• Sexual – Via spore formation (moulds) or pollination (flowers)

Spores
Sexual reproduction in flowering plants involves four key phases:
• Gamete production: Made in ovules (female) or pollen (males)

• Pollination: Transfer of male pollen grains to a female stigma

• Fertilisation: Sperm moved via pollen tube to ovum for fusion

• Seed dispersal: Fertilised ovule (seed) transferred from parent Flowers

D3.1.8 Sexual reproduction in flowering plants

Ovary vs Ovule
Ovary is plant female sex
organ (like ovary in animals)
Ovary contains one or more
ovules
Ovary becomes fruit
Ovules become seeds
Ovules contain an embryo
sac
Embryo sac production
Megaspore mother cell (diploid)
Meiosis
4 x haploid cell
3 x degenerate
1 x embryo sac (haploid)
Mitosis x 3
Embryo sac (8 x haploid nuclei)
To label! 1

5
4
6
To label!
Pollen production
Microspore mother cell (diploid)
Meiosis
Tetrad (4 x haploid nuclei)
Pollen grain (haploid)
Mitosis
Mature pollen grain (2 x haploid nuclei)
Pollination is the transfer of pollen from the anther to the stigma
List the Abiotic and Biotic ways of pollination
Pollination
Pollen tube growth
Pollen tube grows in
intercellular space of style.
Tip of pollen tube releases
enzymes which digest a
path down towards the
ovule.
Mitosis
Penetration of the ovule
Pollen tube enters
ovule at the
micropyle
Generative
nucleus divides by
mitosis into two
sperm nuclei
Double fertilisation
One sperm nucleus fuses
with egg cell nucleus
forming diploid zygote.
One sperm nucleus fuses
with two polar nuclei
forming the triploid
endosperm.
Endosperm provides
nourishment for growing
embryo.
Flowers

FLOWER STRUCTURES
petal
Male (♂): Stamen
stigma anther Anther, filament

style
filament Female (♀): Pistil
Stigma, style, ovule
ovule sepal

peduncle Shared Structures

Petal, sepal, peduncle

D3.1.9 Features of an insect-pollinated flower

1. Petals A. Hold anthers in position likely to brush against
insect.

2. Sepal B. Produce sugar solution (nectar) that feeds

insects.

3. Anther C. Holds stigma in place. Guides pollen tube to

ovary.

4. Filament D. Sticky to capture pollen from insects.

5. Ovary E. Produce pollen containing male gamete.

6. Style F. Holds ovules. Develops into seed-containing

fruit.

7. Stigma G. Bright, colourful and scented to attract insects.

Act as a landing pad.
Copy, rearrange and label
8. Nectary H. Protect flower during development.
1. Petals G. Bright, colourful and scented to attract
insects. Act as a landing pad.

2. Sepal H. Protect flower during development.

3. Anther E. Produce pollen containing male gamete.

4. Filament A. Hold anthers in position likely to brush

against insect.

5, Ovary F. Holds ovules. Develops into seed-

containing fruit.

6. Style C. Holds stigma in place. Guides pollen

tube to ovary.

7. Stigma D. Sticky to capture pollen from insects.

8. Nectary B. Produce sugar solution (nectar) that

feeds insects.
Pollination
Pollination involves the transfer of the male sperm (in a pollen grain) to the female ovule
• Transfer of pollen between stamen and pistils can be mediated by animals or the wind
• While most plants will pollinate other plants (cross-pollination), some may self-pollinate

SELF-POLLINATION CROSS-POLLINATION
Flowering plants and pollinating insects have a mutualistic relationship
Many plants are hermaphrodite - they have both male and female sex
organs.
Nature favours sexual reproduction between unrelated individuals - creates
variation
Plants with two different parents tend to be healthier than plants with only
one parent - hybrid vigour

How do you think plants might reduce the chance of self pollination?
 Cross Pollination
Plants that self-pollinate are less reliant on pollinators to transfer pollen grains, but is also results
in inbreeding – which will lower the genetic diversity and vigour of the population
• Self pollination is still sexual reproduction however, as it involves the fusion of gametes

Plants may possess a number of different mechanisms to promote cross-pollination:

• Some plants will only possess male or female flowers (i.e. they are not hermaphroditic)
(dioecious)
• Some plants possess separate male and female flowers (monoecious) that mature at different
times
• Other plants have heteromorphic (different shaped) flower structures – such as having long
filaments on the stamen, but short styles on the pistil – to prevent self-pollination
• Using wind or animals to transfer pollen makes distant pollination more likely
D3.1.10 Methods of promoting cross-pollination
Pine trees are usually
monoecious
The carob tree is
dioecious
The date palm is dioecious
(Female top; male bottom)
Fertilisation
When a pollen grain settles on a stigma, it develops a protrusion
(pollen tube) that extends along the style to penetrate the ovule

• The male sperm is transported in the pollen tube to the ovum

The formation of a pollen tube is initiated by the interaction of

proteins on the pollen grain and also in the nectar of the stigma

Fluorescent Microscopy:
When the two haploid gametes fuse together (fertilisation), the
Pollen tubes
zygote will form an embryo while the ovule develops into a seed extending
down the plant’s
• The seed will then be dispersed to new sites for germination
style
Self Incompatibility
Plants may have self-incompatibility mechanisms to prevent self-fertilisation from occurring
• If identical proteins are present on the pollen grain and stigma (i.e. from the same plant),
the stigma will reject the pollen and a pollen tube will not be formed (no self-fertilisation)
Self-incompatibility
mechanisms
increase genetic
variation within
a particular species of plant

Incompatible Compatible
An increase in genetic
Pollen variation
(same (different
protein
protein) protein) leads to greater species
diversity
D3.1.11 Self-incompatibility mechanisms to increase genetic variation within a species
Seeds

Epicotyl When fertilisation occurs, an

ovule will develop into a seed
Radicle
• Epicotyl: Embryonic shoot

Micropyle • Radicle: Embryonic root

• Micropyle: Pore for water

Cotyledon
• Cotyledon: Food storage

Testa • Testa: Outer seed coat

Seed dispersal and pollination are not the same thing!

Seeds often benefit from being dispersed away from the parent plant -
avoids competition.

How are seeds dispersed from a plant?

Germination
Germination is the process by which a seed emerges from dormancy and begins to sprout
• The seed coat (testa) will rupture and embryonic roots will draw nutrients from the soil
• The cotyledon emerges from the ground to produce the first leaves of the growing shoot
• The growing plant will be divided into the epicotyl (shoot), hypocotyl (stem) and roots

Timelapse Video Germination Stages – From Seed to Sprout

D3.1.12 Dispersal and germination of seeds

What are the three conditions that all seeds require in order to germinate?
Germination Conditions
Germination requires water absorption (via a micropyle) to metabolically activate the seed
• Oxygen is then required to aerobically digest the food reserves stored in the cotyledon
• When embryonic leaves have developed, light will provide a source of ongoing energy

Additional conditions (heat, pH, prior digestion) may be required to break seed dormancy

Water Oxygen Light Digestion Heat

Puberty
Puberty describes the developmental changes that occur in order to reach sexual maturity
• It is triggered by the release of gonadotropin releasing hormone from the hypothalamus
• GnRH travels to the pituitary gland (anterior lobe) and triggers the secretion of FSH and LH
• FSH and LH are transported via the bloodstream to act on the gonads (testes or ovaries)

Males: Females:
Increases production of testosterone Increases production of estrogen and
(sex hormone produced by the testes) progesterone (produced by ovaries)

Triggers the production of sperm Triggers the production of eggs / ova

D3.1.13 Control of the developmental changes of puberty by gonadotropin-releasing hormone and sex hormones
Gonadotropin
releasing hormone
luteinising hormone
Follicle stimulating
hormone
Oestrogen
Testosterone
Primary sexual characteristics are those present at birth
Secondary sexual characteristics develop at puberty.

What are the secondary sexual characteristics of males? Of females?

Sex Hormones
Pubertal changes are triggered by the steroid sex hormones (testosterone, oestrogen, progesterone)

Facial Hair
Pimples Breast
Growth
Deeper
Voice
Body Hair

Sperm Menstrual
Production Pubic Hair Cycle

Others: Others:
• Growth of penis and testes MALE • More sweating (deodorant
FEMALE Others:
• Hips widen
• Muscles develop now helpful) • Voice slightly deepens
Male Reproductive Tissue
The male reproductive tissue is located within the testes

• The testes are composed of folded seminiferous tubules

• The outer layer of the tubules (the germline epithelium)
will undergo meiotic divisions to produce spermatozoa
• Spermatozoa are then released into the tubule lumen

Pituitary hormones (FSH and LH) support sperm production

• FSH initiates the meiotic divisions of the germline cells
• LH causes interstitial Leydig cells to release testosterone
Female Reproductive Tissue
The female reproductive tissue is located within the ovaries

• Female gametes are in an arrested state of development

• Every gamete is contained within a surrounding follicle
(follicular cells provide nutritional support to the gamete)

Pituitary hormones (FSH and LH) support egg production

• FSH stimulates follicular development, while LH triggers
ovulation (release of an egg as part of a menstrual cycle)
• FHS / LH stimulates release of estrogen and progesterone
What are the stages of meiosis?
Spermatogenesis vs Oogenesis
The process of gamete formation (gametogenesis) differs between male and female sexes
• Differences exist in the timing, number of gametes produced and amount of cytoplasm
SPERMATOGENESIS OOGENESIS
Produce sperm within the testes Produce eggs (ova) within the ovaries

All gametes are equal size Unequal cytoplasmic divisions

Four sperm produced per germ cell Only one egg produced per germ cell
(other cells form extra polar
bodies)
Production is continuous and lifelong
Production is finite and occurs in stages
(puberty death)
(prenatal menarche menopause)
Oogenesis
The development of mature egg cells is a stop-start process with pauses that
can last several years.
Before birth
Oogonial stem cells are found in ovary of fetus.
Diploid cells

Begin meiosis while still foetus.

As soon as oogonia start meiosis they are called oocytes

Oocytes begin meiosis while still a fetus and pause in prophase I

These primary oocytes are found in primordial follicles

When a baby girl is born she will have all the primordial follicles she will ever
have. No new oocytes will be produced.
After puberty
After puberty primordial follicles will begin to develop further into primary
follicles
Primary follicles
contain a
primary oocyte
(arrested in
prophase I and
a few other
cells)
Menstruation
Once a month primary oocytes will be stimulated by FSH to continue meiosis

The primary oocyte will complete meiosis I and become a secondary oocyte

This secondary oocyte will start meiosis II but will pause in metaphase II
The cell that is released from the ovary into the fallopian tube during
ovulation is a secondary oocyte (arrested in metaphase II)
After fertilisation
If a secondary oocyte is fertilised by a sperm cell then it will complete
meiosis II
Label
Mid-piece
Stages of fertilisation:
● Sperm - zona pellucida binding
● Acrosome reaction
● Fusion
● Egg activation
● Cortical reaction
Sperm-Zona pellucida binding
The glycocalyx of the egg cell is called the zona pellucida
Glycoproteins on zona pellucida act as receptors for sperm cell binding.
Acrosome reaction
Enzymes are released from acrosome which then digest zona pellucida
allowing forward movement of sperm.
Fusion
Sperm cell touches cell
membrane of egg cell. Ion
channels open leading to
influx of calcium which
makes inside of egg cell
positive. This repels other
sperm.

Sperm and egg cell plasma membranes fuse and sperm genetic material released into egg cell.

Tail and midpiece remain outside.

Moment of conception!
Egg activation
Egg was arrested at metaphase II (still had two sister chromatids together)
Now second meiotic division is completed.
Cortical reaction
cortical granules released via
exocytosis…
glycoprotein binding sites
destroyed
zona pellucida hardens creating a
fertilisation membrane so that
further sperm unable to enter
Embryo Development
A fertilised egg (zygote) will undergo several mitotic divisions to form a mass of cells (morula)

• The morula cells differentiate and form a blastocyst that implants into the endometrium

A blastocyst is comprised of an outer lining (trophoblast), a fluid cavity and an inner cell mass

• The trophoblast forms a placenta, while the inner cell mass will develop into an embryo

The dividing cells do

not
undergo the gap
phases
of interphase (G1 and
D3.1.16 Development of a blastocyst and implantation in the endometrium G2 )
Pregnancy
When a blastocyst implants in the endometrial lining of the
uterus, it begins to secrete human chorionic gonadotrophin

This hormone (hCG) functions to maintain the corpus luteum

in the ovary, allowing it to continue to produce progesterone
• Progesterone works to maintains the endometrial lining
hCG
The developing embryo must continue to produce hCG until Corpus
Blastocyst luteum
the placenta can develop (~8 weeks following implantation)
• The placenta then functions to maintain the endometrium

D3.1.17 Pregnancy testing by detection of human chorionic gonadotropin secretion

Pregnancy Testing
Pregnancy is detected by testing the the presence of human chorionic gonadotropin in urine
• Pregnancy tests use monoclonal antibodies that are specific to the foetal hormone hCG

Note: A positive pregnancy test

produces two bands – one band
is a positive control (test works)

Urine tests should

still be confirmed
with a blood test!
Placenta
The placenta is a disc-shaped structure that nourishes the foetus MATERNAL

• It acts as a transfer interface between maternal and foetal blood

• Maternal blood will pool into cavities via open-ended arterioles
• Chorionic villi extend into these blood-filled cavities (lacunae)
• Absorbed material is transferred to foetus via an umbilical cord

Various materials must be exchanged between mother and foetus:

• From mother: Oxygen, nutrients (glucose), vitamins, antibodies
• From foetus: Carbon dioxide, urea, hormones (prostaglandins) FOETUS

D3.1.18 Role of the placenta in foetal development inside the uterus

Gestation
The placenta is responsible for maintaining pregnancy hormones for the period of gestation
• Estrogen (oestriol) stimulates myometrial growth and mammary gland development
• Progesterone maintains the endometrial lining and prevents uterine contractions

A drop in the pregnancy hormones at the end of the gestational period will trigger childbirth

Pregnancy The
Hormone Levels

hCG progesterone
hormones placenta
are initially estrogen takes over
produced by the
a hormonal
corpus role
luteum 0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 months as it
develops
Childbirth
The birth process is controlled by a positive feedback loop Oxytoci Contraction
n of
• A growing foetus eventually stretches the uterine walls release uterine
d muscles
• Stretch receptors will send nerve impulses to the brain
• Oxytocin is released from the posterior pituitary gland
• Oxytocin causes the uterine muscles to contract, which
reduces space in the womb, further stretching the walls

Progesterone inhibits uterine contractions, so the levels of Signals sent Cervix

this hormone must drop in order to begin the birth process to pituitary stretch
gland es
D3.1.19 Hormonal control of pregnancy and childbirth
Hormone Replacement Therapy
In females, the hormonal cycle needed for reproduction ceases with the onset of menopause
• This causes symptoms such as hot flashes, vaginal dryness, night sweats and reduced libido

Menopausal women can be prescribed treatments of hormones to mitigating the symptoms

• Early epidemiological studies suggested that these therapies may reduce the risk of CHD
• More recent studies suggest there may be an elevated risk of CHD, breast cancer or stroke

Explanations for these different findings include the following:

• Early studies were observational, while recent studies involved randomised control trials
• Results might reflect socioeconomic status and access to health care (HRT linked to
wealth)
D3.1.20 Hormone replacement therapy and the risk of coronary heart disease
HRT vs CHD
60
10
RISK BENEFIT NIL
HIGH RISK

Cases each year (per 100,000)

50
Relative Risk of CHD with HRT

40
1
30

20

0.1 10

0
LOWER RISK CHD Stroke Breast VTE Colon Hip Death
Cancer Cancer Issues
0.01
Cohort Studies X-rays Case-Control Studies Hormone Placebo

Data Supporting a Correlation Evidence Against a Correlation

Nature of Science
In early epidemiological studies, it was argued that women undergoing
hormone replacement therapy (HRT) had reduced incidence of coronary
heart disease (CHD) and this was deemed to be a cause-and-effect
relationship. Later randomized controlled trials showed that use of HRT led
to a small increase in the risk of CHD. The correlation between HRT and
decreased incidence of CHD is not actually a cause-and-effect relationship.
HRT patients have a higher socioeconomic status, and this status has a causal
relationship with lower risk of CHD.
Theory of Knowledge
If doctors give one particular advice at one time and then give the opposite
advice later when new evidence comes to light - should we ever trust what
they say?