Eddy Current Testing and

Radiography
Eddy Current Testing (ECT): Principle,
Instrumentation for ECT, ECT Techniques,
Advanced ECT methods, Applications.
Radiography: Principle,
Electromagnetic radiation sources, Radiographic
maging, Inspection techniques:
Single wall and double wall techniques, Applications,
limitations.
Textbook 1: Ch.5-5.1 -5.6, Ch.6-6.1,6.2,6.5-6.8
Self-Study Component: Neutron Radiography
What is Eddy Current Testing?
Eddy Current Testing (ECT) is a non-destructive testing
method that uses electromagnetic induction to detect
surface and near-surface defects in conductive materials.
When an alternating current flows through a coil placed near
a conductor, it creates eddy currents in the material. Defects
disrupt these current patterns, which can be detected and
analyzed.
Advantages: Fast inspection, no contact required, and
excellent sensitivity to surface cracks.
EDDY
CURRENT
WORKING
• EC technology is Faraday’s law of
electromagnetic induction.
• The relative motion between a
magnetic field and conductor
causes voltage in the conductor.
Principle

• Eddy Current Testing works on the principle of electromagnetic induction.

• When an alternating current (AC) flows through a coil, it produces an alternating
magnetic field around it.
• If this coil is brought close to a conducting material (test specimen), the changing
magnetic field induces circulating currents (called eddy currents) in the material.
• These eddy currents generate their own magnetic field that opposes the original
coil field (Lenz’s Law).
• Discontinuities (cracks, voids, corrosion, changes in thickness, etc.) disturb the
flow of eddy currents, causing measurable changes in coil impedance (resistance
+ reactance).
• By monitoring these changes, defects and material properties can be detected.
Instrumentation for Eddy Current Testing (ECT)
 Instrumentation for Eddy
Current Testing (ECT)
a) Eddy Current Probe / Coil
• Generates the alternating magnetic field.
Types:
• Pencil probe / absolute probe → general purpose flaw detection.
• Differential probe → compares signals between two coils, good for crack detection.
• Encircling coil → the specimen passes through the coil (used for rods, wires, tubes).
• Surface probe → for sheets, plates, or aircraft skins.
b) Test Instrument (Eddy Current Flaw Detector)
• Supplies AC to the coil.
• Measures changes in coil impedance caused by defects or property variations.
• Displays signals on a screen (usually impedance plane or strip chart).
c) Display Unit / Readout
• Impedance plane display – phasor representation of resistive and reactive changes.
• Digital meter or graph – defect signals, thickness readings, conductivity values.
d) Calibration Standards
• Reference specimens with known flaws or thicknesses to set sensitivity.
 Eddy Current Testing Techniques

There are several techniques depending on

application:
a) Absolute Eddy Current Testing
b) Differential Eddy Current Testing
c) Reflection / Transformer Probe Technique :
Uses two coils: one excites, the other senses induced eddy currents.
d) Encircling Coil Technique:
The specimen passes through a coil (like a tube or wire).
Advanced ECT methods
Remote Field Eddy Current Testing (RFEC)
• Uses low-frequency AC.
• The field penetrates the material wall and comes back to the detector
coil placed farther away.
• Good for detecting deep flaws in ferromagnetic tubing (boilers, heat
exchangers).
Pulsed Eddy Current Testing
• Uses pulsed excitation → analyzes transient response.
• Good for thickness measurement and corrosion detection under
coatings/insulation.
Absolute Eddy Current
Testing

• uses a single coil probe to generate and detect eddy

currents in a conductive material,
• measuring the absolute change in the coil's impedance
to assess material properties and detect surface flaws.
• flaw detection, conductivity measurements, and
thickness measurements but is sensitive to variations in
material thickness, conductivity, permeability, and
temperature
Absolute Eddy Current Testing
Coil Activation:
• An alternating current (AC) is passed through the single test coil in the absolute probe,
creating a changing magnetic field.
Eddy Current Induction:
• When the probe is placed near a conductive material, this magnetic field induces eddy
currents within the material.
Impedance Measurement:
• These eddy currents generate their own magnetic field, which opposes the original field and
alters the coil's electrical impedance (a combination of resistance and inductive reactance).
Information Extraction:
• By measuring the absolute change in the coil's impedance, the test can provide information
about the material's properties and any flaws present
 Differential Eddy Current
Testing

• Differential eddy current testing is a non-destructive

method for detecting flaws in conductive materials
that uses a probe with two active coils typically
wound in opposition, to measure the difference in
their impedance.
• This differential signal arises when one coil
encounters a defect, while the other inspects a
defect-free area, making the technique highly
sensitive to discontinuities such as cracks and pitting.
• Alternating Magnetic Field: An alternating current in the probe creates a primary
magnetic field.
• Eddy Current Induction: This magnetic field induces eddy currents in the
conductive test material.
• Secondary Magnetic Field: The eddy currents generate their own secondary
magnetic field that opposes the primary field.
• Disruption by Defects: When the probe is over a defect, such as a crack or pitting,
the eddy current flow is disturbed.
• Differential Signal: The differential probe, with its two coils, measures the change
in the impedance of the coils due to the disturbed eddy currents.
• Defect Indication: A differential signal is produced only when there's an imbalance
between the two coils, indicating the presence of a defect.
Reflection / Transformer Probe Technique
Principle:

• Works on the principle of mutual inductance between coils.

• A driver (primary) coil induces alternating magnetic fields in the test
material, generating eddy currents.
• The pickup (secondary) coil(s) detect changes in these eddy currents,
which are influenced by material discontinuities (such as cracks, voids,
or inclusions).
•When AC passes through the driver coil, it induces eddy currents in the
conducting specimen.
•The flow of these currents depends on material properties and
presence of defects.
•Pickup coils detect the disturbed magnetic field.
•Any change (caused by cracks, corrosion, or inclusions) alters the
induced voltage in the pickup coils.
Encircling Coil Technique:
 The Encircling Coil Technique
Works:
Coil Placement:
• The encircling coil is positioned around the entire
circumference of a conductive component, such as a tube or
bar.
Magnetic Field Generation:
• An alternating current (AC) is passed through the coil, creating
a rapidly changing magnetic field.
Eddy Current Induction:
• This magnetic field penetrates the conductive material and
induces circulating electrical currents, known as eddy currents,
Interaction with Defects:
• If the material is uniform, the eddy currents flow in a predictable pattern.
• However, if there is a defect (like a crack, corrosion, or void), the eddy current
flow is disrupted.
• This disruption causes a change in the electrical resistance and inductive
reactance of the coil.
Impedance Measurement:
• The eddy current testing system measures these changes in the coil's
impedance.
Defect Detection:
• By analyzing the changes in impedance and phase, the system can identify the
presence, size, and type of defects.
Remote Field Eddy Current Testing (RFEC)
Excitation Coil:
• An alternating current is passed through an excitation coil, generating a
primary magnetic field.
Through-Transmission:
• This magnetic field travels through the tube wall, diffusing radially
outwards and then spreading along the outer surface of the tube.
Re-diffusion and Detection:
• The field then re-diffuses back through the tube wall to the inside,
where it is picked up by a receiver coil. This "through-transmission"
path is the defining characteristic of RFT.
Remote Field Region:
• The receiver coil is positioned in the "remote field region," typically two to three
tube diameters away from the excitation coil. In this region, the directly coupled
magnetic field (traveling directly from the exciter to the receiver inside the tube) is
highly attenuated, making the through-transmission signal dominant.
Defect Detection:
• Changes in the tube wall, such as wall loss from corrosion, pitting, or cracks, affect
the propagation of the magnetic field through the tube wall. These changes are
detected by variations in the amplitude and phase of the signal received by the
detection coil. RFT is particularly sensitive to wall thickness variations and can
detect both internal and external defects with similar sensitivity.
Pulsed
Eddy
Current
Testing
• ECT Probe: Contains the coils responsible for emitting the pulse and receiving the decay
signal.
• Electromagnetic Pulse (PEC): The short, broadband pulse of energy sent into the material.
• Insulation/Coating: Represents the non-conductive layers PEC can penetrate.
• Induced Eddy Currents: The circulating currents generated within the conductive test
material.
• Test Material: The component being inspected (e.g., pipe, vessel wall).
• Corrosion/Defect: Illustrates a potential flaw that would alter the eddy current decay.
• Secondary Magnetic Field (Decay Signal): The magnetic field generated by the decaying
eddy currents, carrying information about the material.
• Data Acquisition & Analysis: The system that processes the received signal to extract
meaningful data, such as wall thickness measurements or corrosion indications.
Applications of Eddy Currents

• Crack Detection
• Condenser Tube Inspection
• Pipes & Tubes Testing
• Wire Testing
• Material Sorting
• Weld Testing
• Coating Thickness Measurement
• Eddy Current Braking Systems
• Induction Heating
• Electromagnetic Damping
Principle

•Radiographic Testing works on the principle of differential

absorption of penetrating electromagnetic radiation (X-rays
or γ-rays) as it passes through a material.
•When the radiation beam strikes a component, areas of varying
thickness, density, or internal defects (like cracks, porosity, voids,
inclusions) absorb radiation differently.
•The transmitted radiation is captured on a film (X-ray film) or a
digital detector, creating an image (radiograph) that shows
internal discontinuities
Electromagnetic radiation sources
• include natural sources like the Sun and stars,
• radioactive elements, and thermal radiation, as well as artificial
sources such as electrical appliances, power lines, radio and TV
antennas, and medical equipment like X-ray machines.
• EM radiation is produced by accelerating or decelerating charged
particles, and these sources generate various forms of radiation,
including radio waves, microwaves, infrared, visible light, ultraviolet,
X-rays, and gamma rays, which make up the electromagnetic
spectrum.
Natural Sources

• The Sun and stars: The primary source of electromagnetic energy on

Earth, producing radiation across the spectrum.
• Radioactive elements: Can emit radioactive particles and radiation,
such as gamma rays.
• Terrestrial radiation: Natural radiation emitted by the Earth's surface.
• Atoms and molecules: Can emit or absorb EM radiation when their
internal energy levels change, a phenomenon used in spectroscopy to
identify substances
Artificial Sources

• Anything using electricity generates an electric and magnetic field, including

power lines, cell phones, computers, Wi-Fi routers, and microwave ovens.
Broadcasting antennas:
• Used to generate and transmit radio and television waves.
Medical and industrial equipment:
• X-ray machines and arc welding equipment are examples of devices that
produce high-energy radiation.
Remote sensing systems:
• Devices designed to generate and detect specific forms of electromagnetic
radiation for scientific or practical purposes
Process of Radiographic
Imaging
• Radiation Source: X-ray tube or gamma-ray isotope (like Ir-192, Co-
60).
• Test Object: The component to be inspected is placed between the
source and the detector.
• Radiographic Film / Detector: Captures the transmitted radiation to
form an image.
• Image Processing:
• Film radiography: Uses chemical development.
• Digital radiography: Uses image intensifiers, flat panel detectors, or
computed radiography (CR).
Radiographic Imaging
Methods
Film Radiography
Traditional method using photographic film creates a
permanent record but requires longer processing times and
chemical development.

Digital Radiography (DR)

Uses electronic detectors for instant image capture, enabling
immediate analysis and easier digital storage and sharing.

Computed Tomography (CT)

Advanced 3D imaging technology providing detailed cross-
sectional views, eliminating superimposition of overlapping
structures.
Real-time Radiography (RTR) – Provides live moving images,
useful for dynamic processes like weld monitoring.
Single Wall Technique (SWT)

• Principle: Radiation passes through a single wall of the component,

and the image of the region of interest is recorded on the
film/detector.
• Single Wall Single Image (SWSI) – Used when only one wall is imaged
at a time.
• Common in small-diameter pipes or thin plates.
Applications

• Inspection of welds in pipelines, boilers, pressure vessels.

• Checking castings for porosity, shrinkage, cracks, inclusions.
• Detection of internal defects in aerospace, automotive, and nuclear
components.
• Examination of composite materials in aerospace structures.