ATOMIC

STRUCTURE
 The earliest ideas
about the atom
started from the Greek
philosopher who
pursued knowledge
through reason and
argument based on
speculations.
 The Greek philosophers
thought that all things were
made from a single basic
substance.
 Early Greek
philosopher
(624 -547 BCE)
Thales of Miletus thought that water was
the fundamental substance. Anaximenes
thought that it was air; Heraclitus
speculates it was fire. But the philosophers
could not use any of these substance to
explain the diverse properties of all matter.
 Early Greek
philosopher
In 490-430 BCE Empedocles
propose the four elemental
substances – earth, air, fire and water
that can mingle, separate, and
reunite in different proportions to
form different kinds of matter.
LEUCIPPUS, DEMOCRITUS, AND ARISTOTLE
LEUCIPUS
The first atomic theory of matter was introduced by Leucippus (500-401 BCE) and his pupil
Democritus (460-370 BCE) in around 420 BCE. The theory was based on the following
assumption.

 Matter consist of very small indivisible particles called atoms, derived from

the Greek word atomos, meaning “uncuttable” or cannot be divided.

 Atom differ in size and shape.
 Atoms exist in an empty space, which he called void, that separates them
from each other. This space allows the atoms to move.
 Atoms are in constant motion
 Observable properties, such as color and taste, can be explained by the
different shapes and/ or arrangements and orientations of the atom.
LEUCIPPUS, DEMOCRITUS, AND
ARISTOTLE
However the idea of the atomicity of matter was criticized by
Aristotle (384-322 BCE), a famous and influential Greek
Philosopher. He argued based on his assumptions that no
void (empty space)or vacuum can exist; therefore, the idea of
atoms in continuous motion was not acceptable.

Aristotle adopted and developed Empedocles idea about the

existence of the elemental substances. He associated the four
substances with four quantities; hot, moist, cold, and dry. He
believed that one substance can be converted into another by
the addition or removal of the appropriate qualities.
LEUCIPPUS, DEMOCRITUS, AND
ARISTOTLE
Because of the influence of Aristotle, the ideas of
Leucippus and Democritus were ignored for nearly
200 years. However, Lucretius (99-55 BCE), a Latin
poet and philosopher, wrote about the concept of
atomism in his poem De rerum natura (On the
Nature of Things), which helped the atomic theory
survive.
 The advent of alchemy:
chemistry in the middle ages

Alchemy
 Is the earliest form of chemistry.
 Derived from the French word “arquemie” which refers to
the mixing of juices and saps obtained from plants.
 It is associated with turning base metal into gold and
creating elixir of life (substance that was believed to
prolong life or render immortality).
 The advent of alchemy:
chemistry in the middle ages

Alchemy
 Influenced by Aristotle's idea of converting one substance
into another by the addition or removal of appropriate
qualities (hot, cold, dry, or moist).
 the alchemists attempted to transmute cheap metals into
gold by treating a base metal with a substance they called
the philosopher's stone.
 Believed that the process may produce an elixir of life.
 The advent of alchemy:
chemistry in the middle ages

In Western Europe, the alchemists were focused on producing

gold. In China, however, alchemy was mainly aimed at finding
the elixir of life; there was little effort devoted to
transmuting metals to gold.
 ALCHEMICAL CONTRIBUTION

The Alchemy Period (1400–1650)

 The age of alchemy lasted for about three centuries —
from 1400 to [Link] this time, alchemists began
to see that their knowledge could be used not just for
gold, but also for healing.
 ALCHEMICAL CONTRIBUTION

Paracelsus (1493–1541)
 A famous alchemist and physician from Switzerland.
 He believed alchemy should focus on medicine, not gold.
 He introduced the idea of using metals and minerals (like
mercury or sulfur) to treat diseases.
 His work helped shift alchemy toward modern chemistry
and medicine.
 ALCHEMICAL CONTRIBUTION

Spread of Alchemy
 Alchemy was practiced in many parts of the world,
including:
 Egypt, Mesopotamia, Greece, and Rome (early
Western civilizations)
 Persia and India (Middle Eastern and South Asian
civilizations)
 China and Japan (East Asian civilizations)Europe
(especially during the Renaissance)
 ALCHEMICAL CONTRIBUTION

Alchemists’ Contributions to Chemistry

 Even though alchemists failed to create the elixir of life or turn
base metals into gold, they still made important contributions
that helped shape modern chemistry.
 ALCHEMICAL CONTRIBUTION

Contributions:
1. Discovered chemical properties
Alchemists experimented with different substances and learned
how they react, change, or behave — what we now call
chemical properties.
 ALCHEMICAL CONTRIBUTION

2. Invented laboratory tools, such as:

 Reaction vessels – containers used to mix and heat
substances
 Alembic – an early tool for distillation (separating liquids by
heating)
 Bain-marie – a gentle water bath used to heat substances
slowly (still used in cooking and labs today)
 Kerotakis – a sealed metal container used in experiments,
especially involving heat
 ALCHEMICAL CONTRIBUTION

3. Studied key chemical processes, including:

Distillation – separating liquids using heat
Sublimation – changing a solid directly into a gas
Fermentation – the breakdown of substances by bacteria or yeast
(like in making wine or bread)
Calcination – heating a substance to a high temperature to drive
off water or other substances
 ALCHEMICAL CONTRIBUTION

 The alchemists unsuccessful efforts in attaining their main

objectives can be attributed to two major technical
problems. One was the difficulty in controlling
temperature as thermometers were not yet developed at
that time. Alchemists used different furnaces for every
conceivable use. Another problem was their disregard for
mass, which is a fundamental property of matter.
SEVENTEENTH
TO MID-
NINETEENTH
 SEVENTEENTH TO MID-NINETEENTH
CENTURY
 The seventeenth century is recognized as the
beginning of scientific revolution; that is, the rise
of experimental science. Up until the mid-
nineteenth century, many scientific studies were
aimed at understanding the nature of elements
and compounds and their interactions.
 THE RISE OF EXPERIMENTATION

British philosopher Sir Francis Bacon (1561-1626),

 tagged as the father of empiricism, popularized
inductive methodologies (now known as the
scientific method) in the conduct of a scientific
inquiry, Empiricism is a philosophy in which
concepts and beliefs are learned and justified
through experience.
 SEVENTEENTH TO MID-NINETEENTH
CENTURY
Robert Boyle (1627–1691)
 An Anglo-Irish philosopher and scientist who studied how air
can be compressed and expanded.
 His experiments led him to believe that air is made of tiny
particles, which he called corpuscles(tiny particles).
 He described these particles as being in constant motion.
 Boyle defined an element as: Any substance that cannot be
broken down into simpler substances.
 He came up with a definition of an element, which we still use
 SEVENTEENTH TO MID-NINETEENTH
CENTURY
Antoine-Laurent Lavoisier (1743–1794)
 A French chemist who did quantitative experiments (carefully
measured experiments).
 He wrote a famous book, Elements of Chemistry, where he
gave a more detailed definition of an element is a simple and
indivisible atoms of which matter is composed.
 SEVENTEENTH TO MID-NINETEENTH
CENTURY
Boyle's and Lavoisier's works supported the idea of
indivisible and indestructible particles that make up
matter.
They both gave us a scientific understanding of
elements and atoms, helping to build the foundation of
modern chemistry.
 SEVENTEENTH TO MID-NINETEENTH
CENTURY
 During the second half of the eighteenth century and in the early
nineteenth century, the widespread application of quantitative
methods brought about great progress in chemistry. This resulted
in the formulation of the laws of chemical combination: law of
conservation of mass, law of definite composition, and law of
multiple proportions. Some scientists thought that these laws can
be explained if matter is thought to be made up of particles.
 CONTRIBUTION OF JOHN DALTON

In 1803, the idea of the atom began to be operational. It

became significant when John Dalton (1766-1844), an
English scientist, used the idea of the indivisible atom to
explain the laws of chemical combination. Dalton pictured
the atom as a tiny, indestractible sphere with mass. Because
of his contributions to the atomic cheory of matter, Dalton is
known as one of the fathers of modern physical science.
 POSTULATE OF DALTON’S THEORY

 The modern atomic theory defines an atom as the smallest

particle of an element that can participate in a chemical reaction.
This idea is embodied in Dalton's atomic theory, which has the
following basic postulates:
 Matter is made up of extremely small, indestructible atoms.
 All atoms of a given element are identical in shape, mass, and other
properties.
 Atoms can combine with other atoms to form compounds but remain
unchanged during ordinary chemical reactions.
 Atoms can combine in small whole number ratios such as 1:1, 1:2, 2:3, and
so on.
 POSTULATE OF DALTON’S THEORY
Similar to how any theory is declared valid based on its ability to explain observed facts
and existing laws, Dalton's atomic theory sufficiently explains the three laws of chemical
combination.
1. The law of conservation of mass states that when an ordinary chemical reaction occurs,
there is no detectable change in the masses of the substances involved before and after
the reaction.
Lavoisier and his wife Marie-Anne Pierrette Paulze proved that mass is conserved in
ordinary chemical reactions carried out in a sealed vessel that does not allow matter
(including gases) to enter or leave during the reaction.
How does Dalton's atomic theory support this? According to Dalton's third postulate,
atoms remain unchanged when they combine with other atoms to form compounds.
Since the same atoms are present before and after a chemical reaction, the total mass
 POSTULATE OF DALTON’S THEORY

2. Also known as the law of definite proportions, the law of definite

composition states that a given compound always contains the same
elements in the same percentages by mass. When two elements
combine to form a given compound, they always do so in a fixed
proportion. Dalton explained this law using his second and third
postulates. If all atoms of the same element are alike and they
combine in fixed numerical ratios, then the percentage composition of
a compound is always the same regardless of its origin or method of
preparation.
 POSTULATE OF DALTON’S THEORY

3. The law of multiple proportions states that when two elements combine to
form more than one compound, the mass of one element that combines with a
fixed mass of the other element is in a ratio of small whole number such as
2:1, 1:1, 2:3, etc.
Dalton's prediction of simple whole number ratios came before the law of
multiple proportions was observed and accepted as a scientific law.
Dalton's idea of endowing the atom of an element with a characteristic
mass offered an explanation for the laws of chemical combination. He
explained that each element has a mass that can be measured. This mass
became known as the atomic weight.
 POSTULATE OF DALTON’S THEORY

However, because an atom is so small, it is impossible to isolate and weigh

individual atoms. Dalton then established the concept of relative atomic
weight. He published a list of elements with their relative atomic weights in his
book A New System of Chemical Philosophy.
 POSTULATE OF DALTON’S THEORY

Jöns Jacob Berzelius (1779-1848)

a Swedish chemist and one of the founders of modern chemistry, suggested that the
presently known atomic mass of oxygen (atomic mass = 16) should serve as the
standard for comparison because oxygen combines readily with many elements.
However, in 1927, it was discovered that oxygen exists in different forms called
isotopes. Isotopes are atoms of the same element that have the same number of
protons but different number of neutrons. Naturally occurring oxygen is a mixture of
99.76% oxygen-16, 0.04% oxygen-17, and 0.2% oxygen-18. This discovery meant that
the choice of natural oxygen as a reference was no longer tolerable.
 POSTULATE OF DALTON’S THEORY
 Today, the atomic masses are measured in terms of atomic mass unit (amu),
which is defined as one-twelfth (⅐) of the mass of a carbon-12 atom. This
means that the mass of one carbon-12 atom is exactly 12 amu.
 The atomic mass (or weight) of an element is now defined as the average
mass of its atoms relative to the mass of a carbon-12 atom arbitrarily
assigned as 12.000 amu.
 Dalton's ideas about atomic weight enabled Dmitri Mendeleev (1834-1907),
a Russian scientist, to develop and create a periodic table of elements. His
table provided the means for discovering new elements with the predicted
atomic weights. Mendeleev left spaces for these then undiscovered
elements.
 MID-
NINETEENTH
CENTURY to
 MID-NINETEENTH CENTURY TO
PRESENT
The nineteenth and twentieth centuries are considered the golden years of science because of the
remarkable scientific advancement in many areas, among which is the development of the atomic
structure.
.
 MID-NINETEENTH CENTURY TO
PRESENT
Electrons and Thomson's Plum Pudding
Model
The works of Irish physicist George Johnstone Stoney (1826-1911) and
British chemist William Crookes (1832-1919) confirmed the idea that
matter has an electrical property. Crookes demonstrated that cathode
rays travel in straight lines and produce light and heat when they strike
certain materials.
These findings allowed British physicist J. J. Thomson (1856-1940) to
further experiment and establish that cathode rays are negatively
 MID-NINETEENTH CENTURY TO
PRESENT
American physicist Robert Millikan (1868-1953)
determined the charge of an electron through his
oil-drop experiment. He found it to be 1.60×
coulomb. With prior knowledge on the mass-to-
charge ratio of an electron, which Thomson also
determined, Millikan obtained the mass of the
electron (me).
SEVENTEENTH TO MID-NINETEENTH
CENTURY
 MID-NINETEENTH CENTURY TO
PRESENT
With the discovery of the electrons, Thomson
proposed a model of an atom that describes its
electrical neutrality. The model, known as plum
pudding model or raisin bread model, pictured the
atom as a positively charged sphere in which
electrons are embedded.
MID-NINETEENTH CENTURY TO
PRESENT
 MID-NINETEENTH CENTURY TO
PRESENT

Protons and Rutherford's Nuclear Model

 The accidental discovery of radioactivity by French physicist
Henri Becquerel (1852-1908) in 1896 helped further unravel the
structure of the atom.
 English physicist Ernest Rutherford (1871-1937), together with
his coworkers, studied the nature of Becquerel's rays. They found
that the rays consist of three types; each type has unique
properties.
MID-NINETEENTH CENTURY TO
PRESENT
 MID-NINETEENTH CENTURY TO
PRESENT
Bohr’s Model
 Rutherford's nuclear model speculated that the electrons were arranged
like planets around the nucleus. However, this view was not widely
accepted because it contradicted the well established law of
electromagnetism, which states that a charged body moving around
another charged body emits electromagnetic radiation and thus loses
energy: IF electrons lose energy, they will spiral into the nucleus.
 The law of electromagnetism predicts that no electron would stay in the
orbit. Therefore, Rutherford’s nuclear atom cannot be true.
 MID-NINETEENTH CENTURY TO
PRESENT
Bohr’s Model
 To prove that Rutherford's atom can exist, Niels Bohe (1885-1962), a
Danish physicist who worked with Rutherford, proposed a model thar was
considered revolutionary at that time. To describe an atom, Bohr took
Rutherford's model, incorporated German physicist Max Plancks photon
(a particle that can possess a definite amount of energy), and applied
Newton's law of motion and the emerging quantum theory. Bohr's model,
which, describes a hydrogen atom, has the following postulates:
 MID-NINETEENTH CENTURY TO
PRESENT
Bohr’s Model
 A hydrogen atom consists of a central proton around which an electron revolves in a circular orbit.
 The force of attraction between a proton and an electron is balanced by the centrifugal force due to the circular motion of the
electron.
 Electrons revolve in specific orbits called energy levels or energy shells represented by the symbol n.
 Each energy level is referred to as a principal quantum number designated by positive integers such as 1, 2, 3, and so on.
For example, a hydrogen atom can have n = 1, 2, 3, and so on.
n = 1 represents the lowest possible energy level. An electron occupying this state is described to
be in the ground state.
n = 2 represents the second energy level. An electron of hydrogen occupying this state is said to be in the excited state.
Electrons in the excited state tend to go back to the ground state.

 An electron can exist only in fully defined states. In such state, the electron possesses a definite amount of energy. The electron can
transfer from one state to another if it absorbs or emits a certain amount of energy in a form of radiation