Module V

Introduction to grid connectivity of RE systems, smart grid and emerging technologies,

operating principles and models of smart grid components, key technologies for networks,
loads and their control capabilities

Evolutionof electricity metering, key components of smart metering, overview of

the hardware used for smart meters, smart metering protocols. Structure and main
components of a distribution management system,Supervisory control and data
acquisition (SCADA), distribution system modelling, new trends for smart grids,
topology analysis, power flow analysis.
Introduction to grid connectivity of RE systems
Grid connectivity means linking renewable energy (RE) systems like solar and wind to
the electricity grid. This allows the energy they produce to be used by homes, businesses,
and industries.

Why is it Important?
•Saves Energy – Extra power from RE sources can be sent to the grid.
•More Reliable Power – Combines different energy sources for a steady supply.
•Less Pollution – Reduces the need for fossil fuels.
•Cost Savings – Helps lower electricity bills over time.
Introduction to grid connectivity of RE systems

Challenges

•Weather Dependence – Solar and wind energy can be inconsistent.

•Grid Upgrades Needed – Some areas may need better power lines and systems.

•Storage Issues – Batteries or other storage methods are needed to save excess power.
Introduction to grid connectivity of RE systems

Solutions
•Smart Grids – Use technology to manage power efficiently.
•Energy Storage – Batteries help store power for later use.
•Microgrids – Small, local grids improve energy availability.
 Smart grid

● “A Smart Grid is an electricity network that can intelligently integrate the

actions of all users connected to it, in order to efficiently deliver sustainable,
economic and secure electricity supplies.”
● A smart grid is an electrical power distribution infrastructure that provides two-
way communication between the utility provider and customers.
● A smart grid automatically detects and responds to routine problems and
quickly recovers if they occur, minimising downtime and financial loss.
Smart Grid & Emerging Technologies

Smart Grid & Emerging Technologies

Smart Grid = A modern electricity network that uses technology to improve power supply.

Benefits:
✔ More Reliable – Reduces power cuts.
✔ Saves Energy– Uses power efficiently.
✔ Supports Renewables – Works well with solar & wind.

Emerging Technologies in Smart Grids:

🔹 Smart Meters – Tracks electricity use.
🔹 Energy Storage – Saves power for later (e.g., batteries).
🔹 AI & Automation – Helps manage power supply smoothly.

Smart grids make electricity better, cleaner, and smarter! ⚡

SMART GRID
Smart Grid: Operating Principles & Components

Operating Principles:
⚡ Real-Time Monitoring – Tracks power flow instantly.
⚡ Self-Healing – Fixes issues automatically.
⚡ Two-Way Communication – Power flows both ways (to & from users).
⚡ Energy Efficiency – Reduces waste & saves costs.

Smart Grid Components:

🔹 Smart Meters – Measure energy use.
🔹 Sensors & Automation – Detect & fix faults.
🔹 Energy Storage – Stores extra power.
🔹 Renewable Integration – Works with solar & wind energy.
Smart grids make power supply smarter, faster, and more reliable! ⚙️
Models of Smart Grid Components

Smart grid components can be classified into different models based on their functions:
[Link] Model – Integrates traditional power plants & renewable energy sources
(solar, wind, hydro).
[Link] Model – Uses high-voltage smart transmission lines for efficient power
flow.
[Link] Model – Delivers electricity through automated substations & smart meters.
[Link] Model – Includes smart appliances, electric vehicles (EVs), and demand-
side management.
[Link] Model – Uses batteries & other storage systems to balance supply and demand.
[Link] & Control Model – Uses sensors, AI, and two-way data flow for grid
optimization.
Models of Smart Grid Components
Challenges of smart grid
 Emerging technologies of smart grid
Some of the major smart grid technologies that enable better energy management,
improve overall performance are:

Advanced Demand Forecasting

● Advanced demand forecasting make use of data analytics and machine learning
(ML) techniques and generates forecasting reports using autoregressive
integrated moving average (ARIMA) and other statistical techniques.
● ARIMA forecasting predicts annual electricity consumption and hourly
electricity prices.
● ARIMA forecasting also provides an additional layer of verification to detect cyber
intrusion attacks on smart meters deployed to measure the electricity consumption
of residential and non-residential consumers.
Vehicle-to-Grid (V2G)

● It transfers unused power from a vehicle into the smart grid

● V2G can feed energy (unused battery capacity) back to the power grid from an
electric car's battery to improve grid stability and maximize the benefits of renewable
energy.

Big Data

● Smart grid data has three core aspects, i.e., high velocity, large volume, and a wide
variety.
● Handling a large volume of data on time with limited resources is a major challenge for
a smart grid.
● big data analytics can play a crucial role in increasing asset utilization, efficiency, system
reliability and stability, and enhancing customer satisfaction.
● Without smart grid big data analytics, it is impractical to assess petabytes of data
produced by smart grid devices.
● Big data captures and analyzes unstructured data from different endpoints in a smart grid.
 Conceptual model of smart grid (architecture)
● The conceptual model consists of
several domains – and its sub-domains
– each of which contains many actors and
applications.
● Actors may be devices, computer systems or
software programs and/or the organizations
that own them. Actors have the capability to
make decisions and exchange information
with other actors through interfaces.
● Applications are the tasks performed by the
actors within the domains
Customer domain: This is the domain where electricity is [Link] in the customer
domain enable customers to manage their energy usage and generation. Some actors also
provide control and information flow between the customer and the other domains.
Markets Domain: The markets are where grid assets are bought and sold. Actors in the
Markets domain exchange price and balance supply and demand within the power system
Service Provider Domain: Actors in the Service Provider domain perform services to support
billing and customer account management, Installation & Maintenance, management of
energy use and home energy generation.
Operations Domain Actors in the Operations domain are responsible for the smooth
operation of the power system
Bulk Generation Domain Applications in the Bulk Generation domain are the first processes
in the delivery of electricity to customers.
Evolution of electricity metering
Evolution of electricity metering can be understood
in a simple way as follows:

1. Early Mechanical Meters (1880s - 1900s)

•The first electricity meters were mechanical and based on the electromagnetic induction
principle.
•They used rotating disks and gears to measure energy consumption.
•Readings were taken manually by a meter reader visiting the site.

2. Electromechanical Meters (1900s - 1980s)

•Improved versions of mechanical meters were developed, with better accuracy.
•The Ferraris wheel meter became popular, using a rotating disk influenced by electric
currents.
•Still required manual readings, but more reliable than earlier models.
The evolution of electricity metering can be
understood in a simple way as follows:
[Link] Meters (1980s - 2000s)
•These meters replaced mechanical parts with digital components.
•More accurate, with LCD displays instead of dials.
•Some models included basic data storage and remote reading capabilities.
4. Smart Meters (2000s - Present)
•Advanced digital meters with real-time monitoring and remote communication.
•Can send data directly to utility companies, eliminating manual readings.
•Support time-of-use pricing, helping users optimize energy usage.
•Often connected to the Internet of Things (IoT) for automated energy management.
Future Trends
•AI-powered energy meters for predictive analysis.
•Integration with renewable energy sources like solar panels.
•Blockchain-based peer-to-peer energy tradin
The evolution of electricity metering can be
understood in a simple way as follows:
Electronic Meters (1980s - 2000s)
•These meters replaced mechanical parts with digital components.
•More accurate, with LCD displays instead of dials.
•Some models included basic data storage and remote reading capabilities.
4. Smart Meters (2000s - Present)
•Advanced digital meters with real-time monitoring and remote communication.
•Can send data directly to utility companies, eliminating manual readings.
•Support time-of-use pricing, helping users optimize energy usage.
•Often connected to the Internet of Things (IoT) for automated energy management.
Future Trends
•AI-powered energy meters for predictive analysis.
•Integration with renewable energy sources like solar panels.
•Blockchain-based peer-to-peer energy tradin
 Smart meter
● Smart meter is an electricity meter that has metering as well as
communication abilities
● It has two key functions to perform:

(i) for providing data on energy usage to consumers to help control over
consumption and cost

(ii) for sending data to the utility for peak-load requirements, load factor
control and to develop pricing strategies on the basis of consumption
information

Block diagram of Smart meter

Signal Acquisition
● A core function of the smart meter is to acquire system parameters
accurately and continuously for subsequent computation and
communication.
● The fundamental electrical parameters required are
● magnitude and frequency of the voltage
● magnitude and phase displacement (relative to the voltage) of current.
● Other parameters such as the power factor, the active/reactive power, and
Total Harmonic Distortion (THD) are computed using these fundamental
quantities.
● Current and voltage sensors measure the current into the load and the voltage
at the point of supply
● typically using a current-sensing shunt resistor on the current
input channel and a resistive voltage divider on the voltage input channel
Signal Conditioning
● The signal conditioning stage involves the preparation of the input signals for the
next step in the process, ADC.
● The signal conditioning stage may include addition/subtraction,
attenuation/amplification and filtering such that its maximum magnitude lies within
the limits of the inputs for the ADC stage.

Analogue to Digital Conversion

● Current and voltage signals obtained from the sensors are first sampled
and then digitised to be processed by the metering software.
● The ADC converts analogue signals coming from the sensors into a digital form.
● Since there are two signals (current and voltage) in a single phase meter, if a
single ADC is used, a multiplexer is required to send the signals in turn to the
ADC.
Computation
● Computation requirements are split into arithmetic operations on input signals,
time stamping of data, preparation of data for communication or
output peripherals, handling of routines associated with irregular input ,
storage of data, system updates and coordinating different functions
● Due to the relatively large number of arithmetic operations required for the derivation
of the parameters, a Digital Signal Processor (DSP) is used.
● For computation, volatile memory and non-volatile memory is needed.
● Volatile memory is used for temporary storage of data to support the processor as
operations are undertaken.
● A certain amount of non-volatile memory is typically required to store specific
information, such as the unit serial number and maintenance access key codes
Input/Output
● A smart meter has a display that presents information in the form of text and
graphs for the human user.
● Liquid Crystal Displays (LCD) and the Light Emitting Diodes (LED) are
preferred for their low cost and low power consumption requirements.
● Smart meters provide a small key pad or touch screen for human-machine
interaction
● Some meters also provide remote calibration and control capability
through communication links.
● Energy consumption and tariffs may be displayed on a separate customer
display unit located in an easily visible location within the residence
● This is to encourage customers to reduce their energy use, either throughout the
year or at times of peak demand when generation is short.
key technologies FOR POWER GENERATION ,
networks, loads and their control capabilities;
1. Power Generation
•Solar Panels – Convert sunlight to electricity.
•Wind Turbines – Harness wind energy.
•Hydro Dams – Use water flow to produce power.
•Fossil Fuels – Burn coal, oil, gas (non-renewable).
•Nuclear Reactors – Use atomic fission to generate power.

2. Networks
•Transmission Lines – Carry high-voltage power over long distances.
•Distribution Grids – Deliver electricity locally to homes and businesses.
•Smart Grids – Use sensors and communication for better control and efficiency.
key technologies FOR POWER GENERATION ,
networks, loads and their control capabilities;
key technologies FOR POWER GENERATION ,
networks, loads and their control capabilities;
3. Loads
•Residential Loads – Homes (lights, appliances, air conditioning).
•Commercial Loads – Offices, shops, and buildings.
•Industrial Loads – Factories and heavy machinery.

4. Control Capabilities
•Sensors & Meters – Track electricity flow and usage.
•Automation Systems – Adjust power flows automatically.
•Demand Response – Shift or reduce electricity use during peak times.
•Energy Management – Optimize generation and consumption to save costs.
 Smart metering protocols

Wired protocols
Ethernet
● Using ethernet connections, smart meters can use TCP/IP or UDP/IP to send data to
the gateway.

Power Line Communication (PLC)

● PLC is one of the simplest options for smart meter communication
● Power lines weren’t built for data transmissions; they were built to provide electricity.
● So when a smart meter communicates through a power line, these data signals often
encounter interference from the electrical current running to powered devices.
● PLC doesn’t require utility providers to install additional network infrastructure, but
it’s less reliable than other solutions.
● As with ethernet, PLC enables the meters to transmit to the gateway through TCP/IP.
Meter Bus (M-Bus)
● M-Bus is a European standard that’s already widely used in buildings and was specifically
developed for smart meters.
● It includes physical, data, network, and application layers, but no transport, session, or
presentation layers.
● With M-Bus, smart meters need a gateway to convert the data to TCP/IP for transport to
the cloud.

Wireless protocols

Wireless Meter-Bus (wM-Bus)

● Wireless M-Bus is simply a wireless version of the M-Bus standard.
● It’s already widely available in Europe
● A Wireless M-Bus network is based on a star topology network with master and slave
devices
● operates on three different frequencies, depending on the mode a meter or gateway uses
LoRaWAN
● LoRaWAN is a popular LPWAN solution with widely available networks in 25 countries.
● Providers can connect to one of these networks or deploy their own.
● Each LoRaWAN provider only covers a specific region, and there are no roaming
agreements between Mobile Network Operators (MNOs).
● This means that when you choose a service provider and deploy in a region they don’t
serve, you have to either select an additional LoRaWAN service provider and manage
multiple contracts or deploy your own gateway to connect to your current MNOs
network.

MIOTY
● MIOTY is a new LPWAN developed for large-scale industrial IoT applications.
● MIOTY uses telegram splitting to divide data into subpackets, then transmits the
packets at different times and frequencies, which helps to reduce interference.
● The Mioty gateway then scans the spectrum for Mioty sub-packets and reassembles
them into a complete message.
 Distribution management system

● Distribution Management System (DMS) is a collection of applications used by the

Distribution Network Operators (DNO) to monitor, control and optimise the performance of
the distribution system and is an attempt to manage its complexity.
● The ultimate goal of a DMS is to enable a smart, self-healing distribution system and to provide
improvements in: supply reliability and quality, efficiency and effectiveness of system
operation
● The first generation of Distribution Management Systems integrated a number of simple
Applications into a computer system.
● An interactive graphical user interface was then added to visualise the network being managed.
● As more and more Applications were added, managing the information exchange and maintaining
the DMS became a challenge
● Standardised models such as the Common Information Model (CIM) were developed to aid
information management
Structureand
main
components of a DMS
A DMS includes Applications:

1. for system monitoring, operation and outage [Link] primary object of

these Applications is maintaining continuity of supply.

2. to help manage the assets of the utility, such as inventory control, construction,
plant records, drawings, and mapping. These include the automated mapping
system, the facilities management system, and the geographical information system.

3. associated with design and planning for network extensions

All these Applications require modelling and analysis tools for which network parameters,

customer information, and network status data are used as inputs.

 Distribution system modelling

●The two main approaches are data‐driven and first principle modelling.
●First principle (physical model)‐based approaches are currently dominant
● Exact modelling :In this approach, the complete first principle model is used
without any assumptions. As the size of the distribution system gets larger,
developing an exact model from first principle becomes a difficult and labour‐
intensive task.
●Approximate modelling relaxes some of the non‐linearities of the models to
decrease the model computational burden and development time
● The non‐linear approach includes approximations for simplification and is more
accurate over a larger operation space.
● When fully linearised, the model becomes computationally efficient, yet
the performance (accuracy) degrades
● In pure data model approach only data is used for modelling. Both the structure
and the parameters are learned from the data
● Hybrid modelling uses a combination of both the first principle as well as data‐
driven [Link] this case, the first principle model provides some information
about the structure, whereas some parameters are learned using data.
 Supervisory Control and Data Acquisition (SCADA)

SCADA is a system of software and hardware elements that allows industrial

organizations to:

● Control industrial processes locally or at remote locations

● Monitor, gather, and process real-time data
● Directly interact with devices such as sensors, valves, pumps, motors, and more
through human-machine interface (HMI) software
● Record events into a log file
●The basic SCADA architecture consists of programmable logic controllers (PLCs) or remote
terminal units (RTUs).
●PLCs and RTUs are microcomputers that communicate with an array of objects such as
factory machines, HMIs, sensors, and end devices, and then route the information from those
objects to computers with SCADA software
●SCADA software processes, distributes, and displays the data, helping operators and other
● SCADA system quickly notifies an operator that a batch of product is showing a high
incidence of errors.
● The operator then pauses the operation and views the SCADA system data via an HMI
to determine the cause of the issue.
● The operator reviews the data and discovers the malfunctioning machine
● The SCADA system’s ability to notify the operator of an issue helps him to resolve it and
prevent further loss of product.
 Components of a SCADA system
Sensors and actuators

● Sensor is a device that detects inputs from industrial

processes.
● An actuator is a device that controls the process.
SCADA field controllers

● These interface directly with sensors and actuators.

● There are two categories
● Remote telemetry units, also called remote terminal units (RTUs), interface with
sensors to collect telemetry data and forward it to a primary system for further
action.
● Programmable logic controllers (PLCs) interface with actuators to control
industrial processes, usually based on current telemetry collected by RTUs
SCADA supervisory computers
● These control all SCADA processes and are used to gather data from field devices
and to send commands to those devices to control industrial processes
● These computers are operated by machine operators, plant supervisors, and technicians
of a manufacturing plant.
● The main functions of these computers are to observe and control the production,
errors, etc.

HMI software

● This provides a system that consolidates and presents data from SCADA field
devices and enables operators to understand and, if needed, modify the status of
SCADA-controlled processes.
Layers of SCADA System Architecture

open control SCADA network architecture

Level 0

● The ground-level/ field level devices that actually interact with the physical environment or
work as technicians in a supervision system
● Sensor is a device that can sense the physical changes around it and generate
appropriate electrical or electronic signals.
● The actuator is a device that makes physical changes when an electrical or electronic signal is
applied to it.

Level 1

● PLC(Programmable Logic Controller) and RTU(Remote Terminal Unit) comes under this
level.
● These are the devices that directly control the ground-level devices such as sensors and
actuators.
● The PLC helps to build the SCADA system with LAN only whereas the RTU system
Level 2

● Supervisory computers are come under this level.

● All the programming devices that operate the ground-level devices are connected to
these computers.
● Supervisory computers are those from where the SCADA software starts working.
● From these computers, the actual instructions and commands are given to do
the operations.
Level 3

● Coordinating computers are comes under level.

● Generally, these computers are connected to multiple plants. So, it can help to gather
data from different plants to one place for production control
Level 4

● It is top-level of the SCADA System.

● At this level, a central computer is connected to all the plants and machinery.
● Generally, this is operated and controlled by the management team.
● All the data and information are collected and stored here.
● Using these data and information they can take any decision.
● From this computer, the management team can see all the actions and operations, etc
 Classification of SCADA system

Monolithic SCADA architecture

● first and most basic type of architecture used in a SCADA system

● Monolithic SCADA Architecture consists of a single SCADA system communicating
with RTUs
● Here only one SCADA system is the master and it cannot communicate with
other SCADA systems.
● So, it is a simple standalone system.
Distributed SCADA architecture

● second-generation systems
● advanced version of monolithic architecture in which multiple stations can communicate
with each other
● The single SCADA PC is connected to a LAN network to which other SCADA systems are
connected
● Data sharing between them is now possible.
● With this architecture, redundancy is also possible

Networked SCADA architecture

● third-generation systems
● WAN network is used for networking and communication
● With networked architecture, the data and supervisory can be accessed anywhere, even from a
physical location different than the plants.
● main improvement in the third generation is to open the architecture of the system, using standards
and
open protocols, and enabling the distribution of SCADA functionality through a WAN and not just a
IoT SCADA System
● IoT SCADA systems are the fourth-generation systems that have reduced cost as a result
of IoT implementation via cloud computing.
● The maintenance of these systems is considered easy in comparison to the others.
● In real-time, the condition of these systems may be reported via cloud computing.

Fig:Distributed SCADA architecture Fig: Networked SCADA architecture

 Application of SCADA in industry

Manufacturing Plant Systems

● Manufacturing plant SCADA precisely control all plant operations.
● For instance, SCADA can be used to monitor and control temperature,
pressure and humidity.
● It can also be used to monitor production lines to ensure that output goals are
being met.
● SCADA can also control assembly line robots and monitor parts usage so that just-in-
time inventory control can be implemented.
Food Production Systems

● Food production SCADA applications are used to ensure food quality and meet
production goals.
● All phases of food preparation are typically monitored and controlled. SCADA can
be used to control the exact mix of ingredients as well as the time and temperature
required to process foods.
● This prevents foods from being spoiled due to a heating process that was off by a
few degrees.
● SCADA applications are also important in food production to document
the fact that the production process meets industry standards and complies with
governmental regulations.
 Topology analysis
Logical topology

In practice, multiple power and communication lines can exist among the nodes, so
that the physical topology can form a mesh network
● assume that a parent is generally connected to multiple children while a child
is connected to few parents (a tree-like topology)
● For example, a power utility is linked to multiple substations, while the
substations belong to a single power utility
● Smart grids can use two separate lines: the power line and the
communication line.
● the two lines logically form the same topology, which is the tree-like topology.
 Power flow analysis in power system

● Power flow, or load flow, is used for planning, operation and control of existing
system as well as for planning of future expansion
● The objective of a power flow study is to calculate the voltage magnitude |V| and
phase angle δ of the bus for a given power system
● Once these values are computed, reactive (Q) and active power (P) can be
calculated

● In a power flow problem, two out of the four quantities are specified and the

remaining two are determined by the solution of power flow equations

● Since these equations are nonlinear, iterative techniques such as the Newton-
Raphson (NR), the Gauss-Seidel (GS), and the fast-decoupled methods (FDLF) are
commonly used to solve this problem.
● The meeting point of various components in a power system is called a bus.
● Each bus in a power system is associated with four quantities and they are real
power (P), reactive power (Q), magnitude of voltage (V), and phase angle of
voltage (δ).
The study of load flow involves the following three steps:

1. Modeling of power system components and network.

2. Development of load flow equations.
3. Solving the load flow equations using numerical
techniques.
Modeling of Power System Components

Generator Load
Transmission Line
A Transmission line is represented as a nominal π model where, R + jX is the
line impedance and Y/2 is called the half line charging admittance.

Y = – ve implies absorption of reactive power i.e it is behaving as an inductor

.
Y = + ve implies generation of reactive power i.e it is behaving as a capacitor.
● In Gauss Seidel Method it is assumed that all buses other than the slack bus are
PQ buses.
● The slack bus voltage being specified, there are (n – 1) bus voltages
whose magnitudes and angles are assumed.
● These values are then updated through an iterative process

● The voltages substituted in the right hand side of Eq. are the most recently
calculated (updated) values for the corresponding buses.
● V1, the slack bus voltage being fixed is not required to be updated.
● Iterations are repeated till no bus voltage magnitude changes by more
than a prescribed value during an iteration.
● The computation process is then said to converge to a solution.
 Question paper
1. Describe the future of smart grid.
2. Discuss the distribution management system in power system.
3. With a neat block diagram explain a smart meter
4. Explain the power flow analysis in power system.
5. Describe the open control SCADA network architecture.
6. List the challenges and emerging technologies of smart grid
7. Give the classification of SCADA system and what is it application in
industry.