Chapter two

Water in Chemical Industry

2.1 INTRODUCTION
 Water is by far the most common liquid on the Earth’s surface, and its unique
properties enable life to exist.
 For chemists, water is a small, simple-looking, and common molecule, H2O, but they
also know it has many unusual and even unique properties,
Use of water
1. For drinking:
 To function properly, the body requires between one and seven
liters of water per day to avoid dehydration; the precise amount
depends on the level of activity, temperature, humidity, another
factors.
 Most of this is ingested through foods or beverages other than
1 drinking straight water. 12/13/2025
 2. Washing :
 Washing is a method of cleaning, usually with water and soap or detergent.
 WASHING INCLUDES:
 Hand washing before and after preparing food and eating, after using the toilet,
after handling something dirty, etc. for the purpose of reducing the spread of
germs.
 washing the face, which is done after waking up, or to keep oneself cool during
the day.
 Brushing one's teeth is also essential for hygiene and is a part of washing.
 Washing of clothing or other cloth items, like bed sheets, whether by hand or
with a washing machine.
 Washing one's car and e.t.c.

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 3. In chemical uses
 Water is widely used in chemical reactions as a solvent or reactant and less
commonly as a solute or catalyst.
 In inorganic reactions, water is a common solvent, dissolving many ionic
compounds, as well as other polar compounds such as ammonia and
compounds closely related to water.
 In organic reactions, it is not usually used as a reaction solvent, because it does
not dissolve the reactants well and is amphoteric(acidic and basic) and
nucleophilic.
4. Heat exchange
 Water and steam are a common fluid used for heat exchange, due to its
availability and high heat capacity, both for cooling and heating.
5. Fire considerations
 Water has a high heat of vaporization which makes it a good fire extinguishing
fluid. The evaporation of water carries heat away from the fire.

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 2.2. Sources of naturally occurring water
 Water resources are natural resources of water that are
potentially useful for humans, for example as a source of
drinking water supply or irrigation water. These resources
can be either freshwater from natural sources, or water
produced artificially from other sources, such as from
reclaimed water (wastewater) or desalinated water
(seawater).
 Natural water is the form of water that occurs naturally by
many sources in which human activities are involved.
 Natural water can be obtained from the atmosphere,
underground, etc. So, the three main sources of natural
water are Seawater (Surface water), rain (Above the surface
water), and Springs (underground water).
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  Surface Water: River, lake and sea water are collectively categorized under
surface water.
 The surface sources are characterized by soft water, turbidity, suspended
solids, some color and microbial contamination.
Ground Water
 Part of the precipitation that falls penetrates the soil.
 This water fills the soil moisture, or is used by growing plants and returned
to the atmosphere by transpiration.
 Ground waters are, generally, characterized by higher concentrations of
dissolved solids, lower levels of color, higher hardness (as compared with
surface water), dissolved gasses and freedom from microbial contamination.
Atmospheric Water
 This refers to rain water. It is the purest form of naturally occurring water
since it has passed through natural process of distillation. It contains
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dissolved gases of O2, CO2, H2S, SO2, SO3, NO2, NH3, etc.
 Again Rainwater is one of the purest forms of water
because it is not exposed to any type of pollution or
contamination. Rainwater is formed when the sun's
radiation evaporates water from the Earth's surface and it
is then carried in the atmosphere by the wind.

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 2.3 Some of water quality parameters
 The most popular definition of water quality is “it is the
physical, chemical, and biological characteristics of water”.
Water quality is a measure of the condition of water relative
to the requirements of one or more biotic species and/or to
any human need or purpose.
 There are three types of water quality parameters physical,
chemical, and biological
A. Physical parameters of water quality
Turbidity
 Turbidity is the cloudiness of water. It is a measure of the
ability of light to pass through water. It is caused by
suspended material such as clay, silt, organic material, and
other particulate materials in waters.
Temperature
7  Viscosity , solubility, odors, and chemical reactions are 12/13/2025
 Taste and odor
 Taste and odor in water can be caused by foreign matter such as
organic materials, inorganic compounds, or dissolved gasses . These
materials may come from natural, domestic or agricultural sources.
Solids
 Solids occur in water either in solution or in suspension. These two
types of solids can be identified by using a glass fiber filter that the
water sample passes through.
 By definition, the suspended solids are retained on the top of the filter
and the dissolved solids pass through the filter with the water.
 Suspended solids are substances that are not completely soluble in water and are present
as particles.
 If the filtered portion of the water sample is placed in a small dish and
then evaporated,
Water can bethe solids as
classified byatheresidue
amountis formed.
of TDS This material is
usuallyper called total
liter as dissolved solids or TDS.
follows:
freshwater: <1500 mg/L TDS;
8 brackish water: 1500–5000 mg/L TDS; 12/13/2025
saline water: >5000 mg/L TDS.
Electrical conductivity (EC)
 The electrical conductivity (EC) of water is a measure of the ability of a solution to carry or
conduct an electrical current.
 Another core physical parameter that you should be aware of involves electrical conductivity,
which measures how well a sample of water or similar solution can carry or conduct electrical
currents. Conductivity levels will increase as the amount of ions in the water increases.
 This is one of the main parameters when measuring water quality because of how easy it is
to detect water contamination levels when measuring the conductivity of water. High
conductivity means that the water contains a high amount of contaminants. On the other
hand, potable water and ultra-pure water are practically unable to conduct an electrical
current. The main units of measurement for electrical conductivity include micromhos/cm
and milliSiemens/m, the latter of which is abbreviated into mS/m.
B. Chemical parameters of water quality
 Actually, pH of water is a measure of how acidic/basic water is . Acidic water contains extra
hydrogen ions (H+) and basic water contains extra hydroxyl (OH−) ions.
 pH ranges from 0 to 14, with 7 being neutral. pH of less than 7 indicates acidity, whereas a
pH of greater than 7 indicates a base solution.
 Pure water is neutral, with a pH close to 7.0 at 25°C. Normal rainfall has a pH of
approximately 5.6 (slightly acidic) due to atmospheric carbon dioxide gas.
 Safe ranges of pH for drinking water are from 6.5 to 8.5 for domestic use and living
organisms need.
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 Acidity
 Acidity is the measure of acids in a solution. The acidity of water is its
quantitative capacity to neutralize a strong base to a selected pH level .
Acidity in water is usually due to carbon dioxide, mineral acids, and
hydrolyzed salts such as ferric and aluminum sulfates .
 Acids can influence many processes such as corrosion, chemical reactions
and biological activities.
 Carbon dioxide from the atmosphere or from the respiration of aquatic
organisms causes acidity when dissolved in water by forming carbonic acid
(H2CO3).
Alkalinity
 The alkalinity of water is its acid-neutralizing capacity. Alkalinity of water is
mainly caused by the presence of hydroxide ions (OH−), bicarbonate ions
(HCO3−), and carbonate ions (CO32−), or a mixture of two of these ions in
water.

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 Chloride occurs naturally in ground water, streams, and lakes,
Chloride

but the presence of relatively high chloride concentration in

freshwater (about 250 mg/L or more) may indicate wastewater
pollution . Chlorides may enter surface water from several
sources including chloride-containing rock, agricultural runoff,
and wastewater.
Chloride ions Cl− in drinking water do not cause any harmful
effects on public health, but high concentrations can cause an
unpleasant salty taste for most people.
Chlorides are not usually harmful to people; however, the
sodium part of table salt has been connected to kidney and
heart diseases.
 Small amounts of chlorides are essential for ordinary cell
functions in animal and plant life.
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 Hardness
Hardness is a term used to express the properties of highly
mineralized waters. The dissolved minerals in water cause problems
such as scale deposits in hot water pipes and difficulty in producing
foam with soap.
Calcium (Ca2+) and magnesium (Mg2+) ions cause the greatest
portion of hardness in naturally occurring waters. They enter water
mainly from contact with soil and rock, particularly limestone deposits.
These ions are present as bicarbonates, sulfates, and sometimes as
chlorides and nitrates.
Generally, groundwater is harder than surface water.
There are two types of hardness:
Temporary hardness which is due to carbonates and bicarbonates
and can be removed by boiling.
 Permanent hardness which is remaining after boiling is caused
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mainly by sulfates and chlorides
  Water with more than 300 mg/L of hardness is generally considered to be
hard, and more than 150 mg/L of hardness is noticed by most people, and
water with less than 75 mg/L is considered to be soft.
 Hardness is normally determined by titration with ethylene diamine tetra
acidic acid or (EDTA) and Eriochrome Black and Blue indicators. It is usually
expressed in terms of mg/L of CaCO3.
Dissolved oxygen
 Dissolved oxygen (DO) is considered to be one of the most important
parameters of water quality in streams, rivers, and lakes. It is a key test of
water pollution. The higher the concentration of dissolved oxygen, the better
the water quality.
 There are three main methods used for measuring dissolved oxygen
concentrations:
 The colorimetric method—quick and inexpensive
 The Winkler titration method—traditional method and
 The electrometric method

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 Bacteria and other microorganisms use organic substances for food. As they
Biochemical oxygen demand (BOD)

metabolize organic material, they consume oxygen .

 The organics are broken down into simpler compounds, such as CO2 and H2O, and
the microbes use the energy released for growth and reproduction.
 When this process occurs in water, the oxygen consumed is the DO in the water.
 If oxygen is not continuously replaced by natural or artificial means in the water,
the DO concentration will reduce as the microbes decompose the organic
materials. This need for oxygen is called the biochemical oxygen demand (BOD).
 The more organic material there is in the water, the higher the BOD used by the
microbes will be.
Chemical oxygen demand (COD)
 The chemical oxygen demand (COD) is a parameter that measures all organics:
 The biodegradable and the non-biodegradable substances . It is a chemical test
using strong oxidizing chemicals (potassium dichromate), sulfuric acid, and heat.
 COD values are always higher than BOD values for the same sample.

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 C. Biological parameters of water quality
One of the most helpful indicators of water quality may be the
presence or lack of living organisms .
Bacteria
Bacteria are single-celled plants that can ingest food and
reproduce at rapid rates if the water’s pH, food supply, and
temperature are ideal. Because bacteria can grow rapidly, it’s
almost impossible to count the number of bacteria in a sample
of water.
In most cases, bacteria will reproduce at a slow rate in colder
water. There are many harmful waterborne diseases that can be
caused by high amounts of bacteria in water, which include
cholera, tularemia, and typhoid.
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 Algae are tiny, microscopic plants that consist of photosynthetic
pigments. These plants are able to support themselves by effectively
converting inorganic matter into organic matter, which is done with
energy from the sun. While this process is ongoing, the algae consume
carbon dioxide and release oxygen.
Algae are also essential in wastewater treatment processes that use
stabilization ponds. The main issues caused by algae include strange
odors and poor taste problems. Keep in mind that some species of
algae can pose serious public health risks. For instance, it’s possible for
blue-green algae to kill cattle.
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 Viruses
 Viruses are tiny biological structures that can be harmful to a person’s
health. Only strong electronic microscopes are able to view viruses. All
viruses require parasites to live. Because of how small viruses are,
they are able to pass through the majority of filters. Certain
waterborne viruses can cause hepatitis and similar health problems.
 Despite the difficulty in treating viruses, most water treatment
facilities should be able to eliminate viruses during the disinfection
process.
 Understanding the three primary types of water quality parameters
may prove useful when you want to treat water and remove the many
contaminants that can be found in water. Whether your water has high
turbidity, a low pH, or ample bacteria, there are an array of solutions
that you can use to eradicate these issues for good.

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 2.5. Water Treatment
 Water treatment is any process that improves the quality of water to make it
appropriate for a specific end-use. The end use may be drinking, industrial water
supply, irrigation, river flow maintenance, water recreation or many other uses,
including being safely returned to the environment.
 Water treatment removes contaminants and undesirable components, or reduces their
concentration so that the water becomes fit for its desired end-use. This treatment is
crucial to human health and allows humans to benefit from both drinking and
irrigation use.
 To obtain potable water some or all of the following steps have to be carried out:
 Coagulation and Flocculation
 Sedimentation
 Filtration
 Treatment with activated charcoal
 Disinfection (chlorination)

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 pH adjustment 12/13/2025
 1. Coagulation-Flocculation:
 Naturally occurring silt particles suspended in water are difficult to remove
because they are very small, often colloidal in size, and possess negative
charges, which repeal each other, and are thus prevented from coming
together to agglomerate to form large particles that could more readily be
settled out.
 The removal of these particles by settling requires first that their
charges be neutralized and second that the particles be encouraged to
collide with each other.
 Coagulants with charges opposite to those of the suspended solids are added
to the water to neutralize the negative charges on dispersed non-settable
solids such as clay and organic substances.
 These include salts of aluminum and iron(III). Of these, alum or filter alum
is most commonly used. This substance is a hydrated aluminum sulfate,
Al2(SO4)3.18H2O.
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  Alum has an advantage in addition to its high positive charge: some fraction of the
aluminum ions may form aluminum oxide and hydroxide by the reaction:
 Al3+ + 3OH- Al(OH)3↓
 The charge neutralization is called coagulation, and the building of larger flocs from
smaller particles is called flocculation.
 Coagulation and flocculation occur in successive steps intended to overcome the
forces stabilizing the suspended particles, allowing particle collision and growth of
flocs, which then can be settled and removed (by sedimentation) or filtered out of the
water.
 Coagulation is therefore destabilizes the particles’ charges.

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 Cont...............
2. Sedimentation - When the flocs have been formed they must be separated
from the water. This is invariably done in gravity settling tanks that allow
the heavier-than-water particles to settle to the bottom.
3. Filtration - Soil particles help filter the ground water, and through the
years scientists have learned to apply this natural process in water
treatment and supply systems, and have developed what we now know as
the rapid sand filter.
 The actual process of separating impurities from carrying liquid by rapid
sand filtration involves two processes: filtration and backwashing.
 Several types of filters are used for water treatment. The common ones were
the slow sand filters and rapid gravity filters.

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 Cont...............
 The treatment of water by slow sand filtration combines biological, chemical
and physical processes when the water slowly passes downwards through a
bed of sand. Fine particles are filtered out, and in the sand and on top of the
filter bed a population of microorganisms develops that feed on bacteria,
viruses and organic matter in the water.
 The filter reservoirs have drains on the bottom covered with gravel and
sand. Raw water slowly enters the filter through an inlet, and an outlet leads
the clean water from the drains to the clean-water mains.

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Figure 1.2: Slow sand filter
 Membrane Filtration/Reverse Osmosis
Membrane filters are mechanical filters, which use a permeable
membrane to separate gaseous or liquid streams.
Depending on the purpose for the processed water, different types of
membranes and techniques are used.
The most common ones are ultra-, micro- and nano-filtration, and reverse
osmosis.
Osmosis is the gradual spontaneous flow of solvent from the region of
low concentration to the region of high concentration through semi
permeable membrane.
Reverse Osmosis is the opposite of osmosis and works by using a high
pressure pump to increase the pressure on the salt side of the RO and
force the water across the semi-permeable
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 Cont...............
 The desalinated water that is demineralized or deionized, is called permeate
(or product) water.
 The water stream that carries the concentrated contaminants that did not pass
through the RO membrane is called the reject (or concentrate) stream.
 Reverse osmosis (RO) can effectively remove nearly all inorganic
contaminants from water.
 RO can also effectively remove radium, natural organic substances,
pesticides, bacteria and viruses.

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 Some of the advantages of RO are:
Removes nearly all contaminant ions and most dissolved non-ions,
Low effluent concentration possible,
Bacteria and particles are also removed.
Some of the limitations of RO are:
High capital and operating costs,
Managing the wastewater (brine solution) is a potential problem,
High level of pretreatment is required in some cases,
Membranes are tending to polluting and Produces the most
wastewater at between 25-50 percent of the feed.

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 Cont...............
4. Treatment with activated charcoal
 Organic contaminants, unwanted coloring, taste and odor causing
compounds can stick to the surface of granular or powder activated carbon
and are thus removed from the drinking water.
5. Disinfection- is a necessary step to kill or inactivate microorganisms and to
prevent spreading of harmful diseases.
 It is very important to test the raw water for microorganisms.
 Disinfection can be attained by means of physical or chemical disinfectants:
 Chlorination (chemical disinfectant)
 Ozonation (chemical disinfectant)
 Ultra Violet radiation (physical disinfectant)
6. Chlorination is the most common in larger water supplies, but less in
smaller ones.

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 Cont...............
 When chlorine comes in contact with organic matter, including
microorganisms, it oxidizes this material and is in turn itself reduced.
 Chlorine gas is rapidly hydrolyzed in water to form hydrochloric acid and
hypochlorous acid, by the reaction
Cl2+ H2O HOCl+ H++ C1-
 The hypochlorous acid itself ionizes further:
HOCl OC1- + H+
 Both HOCl and OC1- are effective disinfectants and are called free available
chlorine in water. Free available chlorine kills pathogenic bacteria and thus
disinfects the water.

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 Cont...............
Water Treatment by Ion-Exchange Process and Electro-dialysis
Ion Exchange:
 Calcium and magnesium salts, which generally are present in water as
bicarbonates or sulfates, cause water hardness.
 The removal of water hardness is essential for many uses of water.

• Fig. 1.3a) shows When hard water passes

through the ion exchanger (left), the calcium
ions from the hard water replace the sodium
ions in the ion exchanger. The softened water,
containing sodium ions in place of calcium
ions, can be collected for household use.
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 Electro-dialysis
 Electro-dialysis (ED) is an electrochemical process in which ions migrate through
ion-selective semi-permeable membranes as a result of their attraction to two
electrically charged electrodes. ED is able to remove most charged dissolved ions.
The principles involved in electro-dialysis treatment are shown in Figure 1.4.

Figure 1.4. Electro-dialysis apparatus for the

removal of ionic material from water.
ED is very useful for water treatment: removal
of mineral salts, sulfate, nitrate, etc. from
brackish water and sea water.

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 t e r- 2
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