Data Preprocessing

 Data Preprocessing: An Overview

 Data Quality
 Major Tasks in Data Preprocessing
 Data Cleaning
 Data Integration
 Data Reduction
 Data Transformation and Data Discretization
 Summary
1
 Data Quality: Why Preprocess the
Data?

 Measures for data quality: A multidimensional view

 Accuracy: correct or wrong, accurate or not
 Completeness: not recorded, unavailable, …
 Consistency: some modified but some not,
dangling, …
 Timeliness: timely update?
 Believability: how trustable the data are
correct?
 Interpretability: how easily the data can be
2
 Major Tasks in Data Preprocessing
 Data cleaning
 Fill in missing values, smooth noisy data, identify or
remove outliers, and resolve inconsistencies
 Data integration
 Integration of multiple databases, data cubes, or files
 Data reduction
 Dimensionality reduction
 Numerosity reduction
 Data compression
 Data transformation and data discretization
 Normalization
 Concept hierarchy generation
3
 Data Preprocessing

 Data Preprocessing: An Overview

 Data Quality
 Major Tasks in Data Preprocessing
 Data Cleaning
 Data Integration
 Data Reduction
 Data Transformation and Data Discretization
 Summary
4
 Data Cleaning
 Data in the Real World Is Dirty: Lots of potentially incorrect
data, e.g., instrument faulty, human or computer error,
transmission error
 incomplete: lacking attribute values, lacking certain
attributes of interest, or containing only aggregate data

e.g., Occupation=“ ” (missing data)
 noisy: containing noise, errors, or outliers

e.g., Salary=“−10” (an error)
 inconsistent: containing discrepancies in codes or names,
e.g.,

Age=“42”, Birthday=“03/07/2010”

Was rating “1, 2, 3”, now rating “A, B, C”

discrepancy between duplicate records
 Intentional (e.g., disguised missing data) 5
 Incomplete (Missing) Data
 Data is not always available
 E.g., many tuples have no recorded value for
several attributes, such as customer income in
sales data
 Missing data may be due to
 equipment malfunction
 inconsistent with other recorded data and thus
deleted
 data not entered due to misunderstanding
 certain data may not be considered important
at the time of entry
 not register history or changes of the data 6
 How to Handle Missing
Data?
 Ignore the tuple: usually done when class label is
missing (when doing classification)—not effective
when the % of missing values per attribute varies
considerably
 Fill in the missing value manually: tedious +
infeasible?
 Fill in it automatically with
 a global constant : e.g., “unknown”, a new
class?!
 the attribute mean
 the attribute mean for all samples belonging to
7
 Noisy Data
 Noise: random error or variance in a measured
variable
 Incorrect attribute values may be due to
 faulty data collection instruments

 data entry problems

 data transmission problems

 technology limitation

 inconsistency in naming convention

 Other data problems which require data cleaning

 duplicate records

 incomplete data

 inconsistent data
8
 How to Handle Noisy Data?
 Binning
 first sort data and partition into (equal-

frequency) bins
 then one can smooth by bin means, smooth by

bin median, smooth by bin boundaries, etc.

 Regression
 smooth by fitting the data into regression

functions
 Clustering
 detect and remove outliers

 Combined computer and human inspection

 detect suspicious values and check by human

(e.g., deal with possible outliers) 9

 Data Cleaning as a Process
 Data discrepancy detection
 Use metadata (e.g., domain, range, dependency,

distribution)
 Check field overloading

 Check uniqueness rule, consecutive rule and null rule

 Use commercial tools


Data scrubbing: use simple domain knowledge (e.g.,
postal code, spell-check) to detect errors and make
corrections

Data auditing: by analyzing data to discover rules and
relationship to detect violators (e.g., correlation and
clustering to find outliers)
 Data migration and integration
 Data migration tools: allow transformations to be specified

 ETL (Extraction/Transformation/Loading) tools: allow users

to specify transformations through a graphical user

interface
 10
 Data Preprocessing

 Data Preprocessing: An Overview

 Data Quality
 Major Tasks in Data Preprocessing
 Data Cleaning
 Data Integration
 Data Reduction
 Data Transformation and Data Discretization
 Summary
11
 Data Integration
 Data integration:
 Combines data from multiple sources into a coherent store
 Schema integration: e.g., [Link]-id  [Link]-#
 Integrate metadata from different sources
 Entity identification problem:
 Identify real world entities from multiple data sources, e.g.,
Bill Clinton = William Clinton
 Detecting and resolving data value conflicts
 For the same real world entity, attribute values from
different sources are different
 Possible reasons: different representations, different
scales, e.g., metric vs. British units
12
 Handling Redundancy in Data
Integration

 Redundant data occur often when integration of

multiple databases
 Object identification: The same attribute or
object may have different names in different
databases
 Derivable data: One attribute may be a
“derived” attribute in another table, e.g.,
annual revenue
 Redundant attributes may be able to be detected
by correlation analysis and covariance analysis
 Careful integration of the data from multiple
13
Correlation Analysis (Nominal Data)
 Χ2 (chi-square) test
2
(Observed  Expected )
 2 
Expected
 The larger the Χ2 value, the more likely the
variables are related
 The cells that contribute the most to the Χ2 value
are those whose actual count is very different from
the expected count
 Correlation does not imply causality
 # of hospitals and # of car-theft in a city are correlated
 Both are causally linked to the third variable: population

14
 Chi-Square Calculation: An
Example

Play Not play Sum

chess chess (row)
Like science fiction 250(90) 200(360) 450

Not like science 50(210) 1000(840) 1050

fiction
Sum(col.) 300 1200 1500
 Χ2 (chi-square) calculation (numbers in parenthesis
are expected counts calculated based on the data
distribution in the two categories)
(250  90) 2 (50  210) 2 (200  360) 2 (1000  840) 2
 
2
   507.93
90 210 360 840
 It shows that like_science_fiction and play_chess
are correlated in the group
15
Correlation Analysis (Numeric Data)

 Correlation coefficient (also called Pearson’s

product moment coefficient)

i 1 (ai  A)(bi  B) 
n n
(ai bi )  n A B
rA, B   i 1
(n  1) A B (n  1) A B

where n is the number of tuples,

A B
and are the
respective means of A and B, σA and σB are the respective
standard deviation of A and B, and Σ(aibi) is the sum of the
AB cross-product.
 If rA,B > 0, A and B are positively correlated (A’s
values increase as B’s). The higher, the stronger
correlation.
16
Visually Evaluating Correlation

Scatter plots
showing the
similarity from
–1 to 1.

17
 Correlation (viewed as linear
relationship)
 Correlation measures the linear relationship
between objects
 To compute correlation, we standardize
data objects, A and B, and then take their
dot product
a 'k (ak  mean( A)) / std ( A)

b'k (bk  mean( B )) / std ( B )

correlation( A, B)  A' B'

18
 Covariance (Numeric Data)
 Covariance is similar to correlation

Correlation coefficient:

where n is the number of tuples,

A and
B are the respective
mean or expected values of A and B, σA and σB are the
respective standard deviation of A and B.
 Positive covariance: If CovA,B > 0, then A and B both tend to be
larger than their expected values.
 Negative covariance: If CovA,B < 0 then if A is larger than its
expected value, B is likely to be smaller than its expected value.

Independence: CovA,B = 0 but the converse is not true:
 Some pairs of random variables may have a covariance of 0 but are
not independent. Only under some additional assumptions (e.g., the
19
 Co-Variance: An Example

 It can be simplified in computation as

 Suppose two stocks A and B have the following values in one

week: (2, 5), (3, 8), (5, 10), (4, 11), (6, 14).
 Question: If the stocks are affected by the same industry
trends, will their prices rise or fall together?
 E(A) = (2 + 3 + 5 + 4 + 6)/ 5 = 20/5 = 4
 E(B) = (5 + 8 + 10 + 11 + 14) /5 = 48/5 = 9.6
 Cov(A,B) = (2×5+3×8+5×10+4×11+6×14)/5 − 4 × 9.6 =
4
 Data Preprocessing

 Data Preprocessing: An Overview

 Data Quality
 Major Tasks in Data Preprocessing
 Data Cleaning
 Data Integration
 Data Reduction
 Data Transformation and Data Discretization
 Summary
21
 Data Reduction Strategies
 Data reduction: Obtain a reduced representation of the data
set that is much smaller in volume but yet produces the same
(or almost the same) analytical results
 Why data reduction? — A database/data warehouse may store
terabytes of data. Complex data analysis may take a very
long time to run on the complete data set.
 Data reduction strategies
 Dimensionality reduction, e.g., remove unimportant

attributes

Wavelet transforms

Principal Components Analysis (PCA)

Feature subset selection, feature creation
 Numerosity reduction (some simply call it: Data Reduction)


Regression and Log-Linear Models

Histograms, clustering, sampling

Data cube aggregation
 Data compression
22
Data Reduction 1: Dimensionality
Reduction
 Curse of dimensionality
 When dimensionality increases, data becomes increasingly
sparse
 Density and distance between points, which is critical to
clustering, outlier analysis, becomes less meaningful
 The possible combinations of subspaces will grow exponentially
 Dimensionality reduction
 Avoid the curse of dimensionality
 Help eliminate irrelevant features and reduce noise
 Reduce time and space required in data mining
 Allow easier visualization
 Dimensionality reduction techniques
 Wavelet transforms
 Principal Component Analysis
 Supervised and nonlinear techniques (e.g., feature selection)
23
 Mapping Data to a New Space
 Fourier transform
 Wavelet transform

Two Sine Waves Two Sine Waves + Noise Frequency

24
 What Is Wavelet Transform?
 Decomposes a signal into
different frequency
subbands
 Applicable to n-
dimensional signals
 Data are transformed to
preserve relative distance
between objects at
different levels of
resolution
 Allow natural clusters to
become more
distinguishable 25
 Wavelet
Transformation
Haar2 Daubechie4
 Discrete wavelet transform (DWT) for linear signal
processing, multi-resolution analysis
 Compressed approximation: store only a small
fraction of the strongest of the wavelet coefficients
 Similar to discrete Fourier transform (DFT), but
better lossy compression, localized in space
 Method:
 Length, L, must be an integer power of 2 (padding with
0’s, when necessary)
 Each transform has 2 functions: smoothing, difference
 Applies to pairs of data, resulting in two set of data of
length L/2
 Applies two functions recursively, until reaches the 26
 Wavelet Decomposition
 Wavelets: A math tool for space-efficient
hierarchical decomposition of functions
 S = [2, 2, 0, 2, 3, 5, 4, 4] can be transformed to S^
= [23/4, -11/4, 1/2, 0, 0, -1, -1, 0]
 Compression: many small detail coefficients can
be replaced by 0’s, and only the significant
coefficients are retained

27
 Haar Wavelet Coefficients
Coefficient
Hierarchical “Supports”
2.75
decomposition 2.75 +
structure (a.k.a. +
“error tree”) + -1.25
-
-1.25
+ -
0.5
+
0.5
- +
0
- 0
+
-
0 -1 -1 0
+
-
+ + 0
- - + - + -
-1
+
-+
-+
2 2 0 2 3 5 4 4
-1
Original frequency distribution 0 -+
-
28
 Why Wavelet Transform?
 Use hat-shape filters
 Emphasize region where points cluster

 Suppress weaker information in their

boundaries
 Effective removal of outliers
 Insensitive to noise, insensitive to input order

 Multi-resolution
 Detect arbitrary shaped clusters at different

scales
 Efficient
 Complexity O(N)

 Only applicable to low dimensional data

29
Principal Component Analysis (PCA)
 Find a projection that captures the largest amount of
variation in data
 The original data are projected onto a much smaller space,
resulting in dimensionality reduction. We find the
eigenvectors of the covariance matrix, and these
eigenvectorsx2 define the new space

x1
30
 Principal Component Analysis
(Steps)
 Given N data vectors from n-dimensions, find k ≤ n
orthogonal vectors (principal components) that can be best
used to represent data
 Normalize input data: Each attribute falls within the same
range
 Compute k orthonormal (unit) vectors, i.e., principal
components
 Each input data (vector) is a linear combination of the k
principal component vectors
 The principal components are sorted in order of decreasing
“significance” or strength
 Since the components are sorted, the size of the data can
be reduced by eliminating the weak components, i.e.,
those with low variance (i.e., using the strongest principal 31
 Attribute Subset Selection
 Another way to reduce dimensionality of data
 Redundant attributes
 Duplicate much or all of the information
contained in one or more other attributes
 E.g., purchase price of a product and the
amount of sales tax paid
 Irrelevant attributes
 Contain no information that is useful for the
data mining task at hand
 E.g., students' ID is often irrelevant to the task
of predicting students' GPA
32
 Heuristic Search in Attribute
Selection
 There are 2d possible attribute combinations of d
attributes
 Typical heuristic attribute selection methods:
 Best single attribute under the attribute

independence assumption: choose by

significance tests
 Best step-wise feature selection:


The best single-attribute is picked first

Then next best attribute condition to the
first, ...
 Step-wise attribute elimination:


Repeatedly eliminate the worst attribute
 Best combined attribute selection and elimination
33
 Attribute Creation (Feature
Generation)
 Create new attributes (features) that can capture
the important information in a data set more
effectively than the original ones
 Three general methodologies
 Attribute extraction


Domain-specific
 Mapping data to new space (see: data

reduction)

E.g., Fourier transformation, wavelet
transformation, manifold approaches (not
covered)
 Attribute construction


Combining features (see: discriminative
34
 Data Reduction 2: Numerosity
Reduction
 Reduce data volume by choosing alternative,
smaller forms of data representation
 Parametric methods (e.g., regression)
 Assume the data fits some model, estimate

model parameters, store only the parameters,

and discard the data (except possible outliers)
 Ex.: Log-linear models—obtain value at a point

in m-D space as the product on appropriate

marginal subspaces
 Non-parametric methods
 Do not assume models

 Major families: histograms, clustering,

sampling, …
35
 Parametric Data Reduction:
Regression and Log-Linear
Models
 Linear regression
 Data modeled to fit a straight line

 Often uses the least-square method to fit the

line
 Multiple regression
 Allows a response variable Y to be modeled as

a linear function of multidimensional feature

vector
 Log-linear model
 Approximates discrete multidimensional

probability distributions

36
 y
Regression Analysis
Y1
 Regression analysis: A collective
name for techniques for the modeling Y1’
y=x+1
and analysis of numerical data
consisting of values of a dependent
variable (also called response X1 x
variable or measurement) and of
one or more independent variables  Used for prediction
(aka. explanatory variables or (including forecasting of
predictors) time-series data),
 The parameters are estimated so as inference, hypothesis
testing, and modeling of
to give a "best fit" of the data
causal relationships
 Most commonly the best fit is
evaluated by using the least
37
 Regress Analysis and Log-
Linear Models
 Linear regression: Y = w X + b
 Two regression coefficients, w and b, specify the line and
are to be estimated by using the data at hand
 Using the least squares criterion to the known values of Y1,
Y2, …, X1, X2, ….
 Multiple regression: Y = b0 + b1 X1 + b2 X2
 Many nonlinear functions can be transformed into the
above
 Log-linear models:
 Approximate discrete multidimensional probability
distributions
 Estimate the probability of each point (tuple) in a multi-
dimensional space for a set of discretized attributes, based 38
 Histogram Analysis
 Divide data into buckets 40
and store average (sum) 35
for each bucket 30
 Partitioning rules: 25
 Equal-width: equal 20
bucket range 15
 Equal-frequency (or 10
equal-depth) 5
0
10000
20000
30000
40000
50000
60000
70000
80000
90000
100000
39
 Clustering
 Partition data set into clusters based on
similarity, and store cluster representation (e.g.,
centroid and diameter) only
 Can be very effective if data is clustered but not if
data is “smeared”
 Can have hierarchical clustering and be stored in
multi-dimensional index tree structures
 There are many choices of clustering definitions
and clustering algorithms
 Cluster analysis will be studied in depth in
Chapter 10
40
 Sampling

 Sampling: obtaining a small sample s to represent

the whole data set N
 Allow a mining algorithm to run in complexity that
is potentially sub-linear to the size of the data
 Key principle: Choose a representative subset of
the data
 Simple random sampling may have very poor
performance in the presence of skew
 Develop adaptive sampling methods, e.g.,
stratified sampling:
 Note: Sampling may not reduce database I/Os
41
 Types of Sampling
 Simple random sampling
 There is an equal probability of selecting any

particular item
 Sampling without replacement
 Once an object is selected, it is removed from

the population
 Sampling with replacement
 A selected object is not removed from the

population
 Stratified sampling:
 Partition the data set, and draw samples from

each partition (proportionally, i.e., approximately

the same percentage of the data)
 Used in conjunction with skewed data
42
Sampling: With or without
Replacement

W O R
SRS le random
i m p h o u t
( s e wi t
l
s a m p m e nt )
e p l a ce
r

SRSW
R

Raw Data
43
Sampling: Cluster or Stratified
Sampling

Raw Data Cluster/Stratified Sample

44
 Data Cube Aggregation

 The lowest level of a data cube (base cuboid)

 The aggregated data for an individual entity of
interest
 E.g., a customer in a phone calling data
warehouse
 Multiple levels of aggregation in data cubes
 Further reduce the size of data to deal with
 Reference appropriate levels
 Use the smallest representation which is enough
to solve the task
 Queries regarding aggregated information should 45
 Data Reduction 3: Data
Compression
 String compression
 There are extensive theories and well-tuned

algorithms
 Typically lossless, but only limited manipulation is

possible without expansion

 Audio/video compression
 Typically lossy compression, with progressive

refinement
 Sometimes small fragments of signal can be

reconstructed without reconstructing the whole

 Time sequence is not audio
 Typically short and vary slowly with time

 Dimensionality and numerosity reduction may also 46

Data Compression

Original Data Compressed

Data
lossless

s s y
lo
Original Data
Approximated

47
 Data Preprocessing

 Data Preprocessing: An Overview

 Data Quality
 Major Tasks in Data Preprocessing
 Data Cleaning
 Data Integration
 Data Reduction
 Data Transformation and Data Discretization
 Summary
48
 Data Transformation
 A function that maps the entire set of values of a given
attribute to a new set of replacement values s.t. each old
value can be identified with one of the new values
 Methods
 Smoothing: Remove noise from data
 Attribute/feature construction

New attributes constructed from the given ones
 Aggregation: Summarization, data cube construction
 Normalization: Scaled to fall within a smaller, specified
range

min-max normalization

z-score normalization

normalization by decimal scaling
49
 Normalization
 Min-max normalization: to [new_minA, new_maxA]
v  minA
v'  (new _ maxA  new _ minA)  new _ minA
maxA  minA
 Ex. Let income range $12,000 to $98,000
73,600  12,000 normalized to
(1.0  0)  0 0.716
[0.0, 1.0]. Then $73,000 is mapped
98,000  to
12,000

 Z-score normalization (μ: mean, σ: standard deviation):

v  A
v' 
 A

73,600  54,000
1.225
 Ex. Let μ = 54,000, σ = 16,000. Then 16, 000
 Normalization by decimal scaling
v
v'  j Where j is the smallest integer such that Max(|ν’|) < 1
10
50
 Discretization
 Three types of attributes
 Nominal—values from an unordered set, e.g., color,
profession
 Ordinal—values from an ordered set, e.g., military or
academic rank
 Numeric—real numbers, e.g., integer or real numbers
 Discretization: Divide the range of a continuous attribute into
intervals
 Interval labels can then be used to replace actual data
values
 Reduce data size by discretization
 Supervised vs. unsupervised
 Split (top-down) vs. merge (bottom-up)
51
 Data Discretization Methods
 Typical methods: All the methods can be applied
recursively
 Binning

Top-down split, unsupervised
 Histogram analysis

Top-down split, unsupervised
 Clustering analysis (unsupervised, top-down split
or bottom-up merge)
 Decision-tree analysis (supervised, top-down
split)
 Correlation (e.g., 2) analysis (unsupervised, 52
 Simple Discretization: Binning

 Equal-width (distance) partitioning

 Divides the range into N intervals of equal size: uniform
grid
 if A and B are the lowest and highest values of the
attribute, the width of intervals will be: W = (B –A)/N.
 The most straightforward, but outliers may dominate
presentation
 Skewed data is not handled well
 Equal-depth (frequency) partitioning
 Divides the range into N intervals, each containing
approximately same number of samples
 53
 Binning Methods for Data
Smoothing
 Sorted data for price (in dollars): 4, 8, 9, 15, 21, 21, 24,
25, 26, 28, 29, 34
* Partition into equal-frequency (equi-depth) bins:
- Bin 1: 4, 8, 9, 15
- Bin 2: 21, 21, 24, 25
- Bin 3: 26, 28, 29, 34
* Smoothing by bin means:
- Bin 1: 9, 9, 9, 9
- Bin 2: 23, 23, 23, 23
- Bin 3: 29, 29, 29, 29
* Smoothing by bin boundaries:
- Bin 1: 4, 4, 4, 15
- Bin 2: 21, 21, 25, 25
- Bin 3: 26, 26, 26, 34
54
 Class Labels
(Binning vs. Clustering)

Data Equal interval width

(binning)

Equal frequency (binning) K-means clustering leads to better

results
55
Classification & Correlation
Analysis
 Classification (e.g., decision tree analysis)
 Supervised: Given class labels, e.g., cancerous vs. benign
 Using entropy to determine split point (discretization
point)
 Top-down, recursive split
 Details to be covered in Chapter 7
 Correlation analysis (e.g., Chi-merge: χ2-based discretization)
 Supervised: use class information
 Bottom-up merge: find the best neighboring intervals
(those having similar distributions of classes, i.e., low χ2
values) to merge
56
 Concept Hierarchy Generation
 Concept hierarchy organizes concepts (i.e., attribute
values) hierarchically and is usually associated with each
dimension in a data warehouse
 Concept hierarchies facilitate drilling and rolling in data
warehouses to view data in multiple granularity
 Concept hierarchy formation: Recursively reduce the data by
collecting and replacing low level concepts (such as numeric
values for age) by higher level concepts (such as youth, adult,
or senior)
 Concept hierarchies can be explicitly specified by domain
experts and/or data warehouse designers
 Concept hierarchy can be automatically formed for both
numeric and nominal data. For numeric data, use
discretization methods shown. 57
 Concept Hierarchy Generation
for Nominal Data
 Specification of a partial/total ordering of attributes
explicitly at the schema level by users or experts
 street < city < state < country
 Specification of a hierarchy for a set of values by
explicit data grouping
 {Urbana, Champaign, Chicago} < Illinois
 Specification of only a partial set of attributes
 E.g., only street < city, not others
 Automatic generation of hierarchies (or attribute
levels) by the analysis of the number of distinct
values
 E.g., for a set of attributes: {street, city, state, 58
 Automatic Concept Hierarchy
Generation
 Some hierarchies can be automatically generated based on
the analysis of the number of distinct values per attribute in
the data set
 The attribute with the most distinct values is placed at

the lowest level of the hierarchy

 Exceptions, e.g., weekday, month, quarter, year

country 15 distinct values

province_or_ state 365 distinct values

city 3567 distinct values

street 674,339 distinct values

59
 Data Preprocessing

 Data Preprocessing: An Overview

 Data Quality
 Major Tasks in Data Preprocessing
 Data Cleaning
 Data Integration
 Data Reduction
 Data Transformation and Data Discretization
 Summary
60
 Summary
 Data quality: accuracy, completeness, consistency,
timeliness, believability, interpretability
 Data cleaning: e.g. missing/noisy values, outliers
 Data integration from multiple sources:
 Entity identification problem

 Remove redundancies

 Detect inconsistencies

 Data reduction
 Dimensionality reduction

 Numerosity reduction

 Data compression

 Data transformation and data discretization

 Normalization

 Concept hierarchy generation

61
 References
 D. P. Ballou and G. K. Tayi. Enhancing data quality in data warehouse environments. Comm. of
ACM, 42:73-78, 1999
 A. Bruce, D. Donoho, and H.-Y. Gao. Wavelet analysis. IEEE Spectrum, Oct 1996
 T. Dasu and T. Johnson. Exploratory Data Mining and Data Cleaning. John Wiley, 2003
 J. Devore and R. Peck. Statistics: The Exploration and Analysis of Data. Duxbury Press, 1997.
 H. Galhardas, D. Florescu, D. Shasha, E. Simon, and C.-A. Saita. Declarative data cleaning:
Language, model, and algorithms. VLDB'01
 M. Hua and J. Pei. Cleaning disguised missing data: A heuristic approach. KDD'07
 H. V. Jagadish, et al., Special Issue on Data Reduction Techniques. Bulletin of the Technical
Committee on Data Engineering, 20(4), Dec. 1997
 H. Liu and H. Motoda (eds.). Feature Extraction, Construction, and Selection: A Data Mining
Perspective. Kluwer Academic, 1998
 J. E. Olson. Data Quality: The Accuracy Dimension. Morgan Kaufmann, 2003
 D. Pyle. Data Preparation for Data Mining. Morgan Kaufmann, 1999
 V. Raman and J. Hellerstein. Potters Wheel: An Interactive Framework for Data Cleaning and
Transformation, VLDB’2001
 T. Redman. Data Quality: The Field Guide. Digital Press (Elsevier), 2001
 R. Wang, V. Storey, and C. Firth. A framework for analysis of data quality research. IEEE Trans.
Knowledge and Data Engineering, 7:623-640, 1995
62